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Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting

BOOK

Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting

David Jenkins | Jiri Wanner

(2014)

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Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78040-494-3
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
460
Subjects
The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting covers the current status of all aspects of the activated sludge process and looks forward to its further development in the future. It celebrates 100 years of the Activated Sludge process, from the time that the early developers presented the seminal works that led to its eventual worldwide adoption. 
The book assembles contributions from renowned world leaders in activated sludge research, development, technology and application.  The objective of the book is to summarise the knowledge of all aspects of the activated sludge process and to present and discuss anticipated future developments. The book comprises invited papers that were delivered at the conference "Activated Sludge…100 Years and Counting!", held in Essen, Germany, June 12th to 14th, 2014.
Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting is of interest to researchers, engineers, designers, operations specialists, and governmental agencies from a wide range of disciplines associated with all aspects of the activated sludge process. 
Authors: David Jenkins, University of California at Berkeley, USA, Jiri Wanner, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague, Czech Republic.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Title iii
Copyright iv
Contents v
Abbreviations xvii
About the authors xxi
Preface xxxiii
1 Ardern and Lockett remembrance 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 INVENTION OF AS 3
1.2.1 The context 3
1.2.2 The discovery 5
1.3 AFTERMATH OF THE INVENTION 6
1.3.1 Accelerated implementation 6
1.3.2 The patent 8
1.4 SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTS 12
1.5 FUTURE PROSPECTS 13
1.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15
1.7 REFERENCES 15
2 Wastewater treatment requirements through the years (exemplified by the development in Germany) 17
2.1 INTRODUCTION – THE EMERGENCE OF SYSTEMATIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT (IN GERMANY) 17
2.2 DEVELOPING WASTEWATER TREATMENT CHARACTERISTICS – FROM QUASI-AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS TO CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS 19
2.3 FROM CONSIDERATION OF ONE SPECIFIC POINT OF DISCHARGE TO INTEGRAL ANALYSIS OF AN ENTIRE WATER BASIN 21
2.4 FROM CORRECTIONS OF TODAY’S WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS TO ACHIEVING WHOLESOMENESS OF WATER FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS 26
2.5 HOW TO GUARANTEE THAT STANDARDS ARE MET (OPERATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUMENTS) 28
2.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS – ISSUES NOT CONSIDERED 30
2.7 REFERENCES 30
3 Activated sludge process development 33
3.1 INTRODUCTION 33
3.2 THE BEGINNING – 1882–1914 34
3.3 RAPID ACCEPTANCE OF AS – 1914–1930 35
3.4 THE BEGINNING OF AS PATENTS 37
3.5 FURTHER PROCESS UNDERSTANDING AND INNOVATION – 1930–1970 37
3.6 THE AGE OF THE SELECTOR AND BNR – 1970–1990 43
3.7 SMALLER FOOTPRINT, HIGHER EFFLUENT QUALITY – 1990–THE PRESENT 45
3.8 THE FUTURE OF AS 47
3.9 REFERENCES 47
4 Microbiology and microbial ecology of the activated sludge process 53
4.1 INTRODUCTION 53
4.2 WHICH BACTERIA ARE PRESENT? – CULTURING AND LIGHT MICROSCOPY 54
4.3 IDENTITY AND FUNCTION REVEALED BY THE MOLECULAR TOOLS – FROM THE EARLY 1990S 57
4.4 THE MODERN TOOLS – THE NGS ERA – SINCE EARLY 2000 62
4.5 COMPREHENSIVE ECOSYSTEM MODEL – WHERE ARE WE TODAY? 65
4.6 THE FUTURE 66
4.7 REFERENCES 67
5 Nitrogen 77
5.1 INTRODUCTION 77
5.1.1 N in domestic wastewater 77
5.2 THE N CYCLE 78
5.3 HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF BIOLOGICAL N REMOVAL 79
5.4 CONVENTIONAL N REMOVAL 81
5.5 INNOVATIVE N REMOVAL APPROACHES 81
5.5.1 Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification 82
5.5.2 Shortcut N removal 82
5.5.3 Deammonification 83
5.5.4 Nitrate-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (N-DAMO) 85
5.6 EMERGING TOPICS IN BIOLOGICAL N REMOVAL 85
5.6.1 Nitrogen oxide production and emission during nitrification and denitrification 85
5.6.2 Structure and function of chemoorganoheterotrophic denitrification 86
5.6.3 Refractory dissolved organic N 86
5.7 N REMOVAL IN THE FUTURE 87
5.8 REFERENCES 88
6 Phosphorus removal in activated sludge 93
6.1 INTRODUCTION 93
6.2 EARLY HISTORY 94
6.3 DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL NUTRIENT REMOVAL (BNR) 94
6.4 PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS FOR BNR 96
6.5 ACID FERMENTATION FOR PRODUCTION OF VFAS 98
6.5.1 Fermentation of primary sludge 98
6.5.2 Fermentation of MLSS or RAS 99
6.6 SECONDARY RELEASE OF P 100
6.7 HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE 101
6.7.1 Intensive research 101
6.7.2 Microbiology 102
6.7.3 Biochemical models 104
6.7.4 GAO/PAO competition 105
6.8 DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS 106
6.9 P REMOVAL IN AEROBIC GRANULAR SLUDGE 107
6.10 RELIABILITY OF EBPR 108
6.11 RESOURCE RECOVERY 109
6.12 REFERENCES 110
7 Micro-pollutant removal 117
7.1 INTRODUCTION 117
7.2 FATE OF MICROPOLLUTANTS IN AS TREATMENT 118
7.3 BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS 123
7.4 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN TO IMPROVE MICRO-POLLUTANT REMOVAL AND THEIR EFFECT ON AS TREATMENT 125
7.5 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 127
7.6 REFERENCES 128
8 Aeration and mixing 131
8.1 INTRODUCTION 131
8.2 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AERATION AND MIXING SYSTEMS 131
8.3 AERATION SYSTEMS 133
8.3.1 General information 133
8.3.2 Table of standard values for aeration systems 136
8.4 APPROACHES FOR THE OPTIMIZATION OF AERATION SYSTEMS 139
8.4.1 Dimensioning of different oxygen demand loads 139
8.4.2 Adjustment to seasonal changes in MLSS concentration 142
8.4.3 Adjustment AS tank oxygen concentration according to the treatment goal 143
8.4.4 Control of compressed air generation 143
8.4.5 Measures to avoid efficiency reduction 144
8.5 AERATION SYSTEMS IN COLD AND WARM CLIMATE REGIONS 145
8.6 MIXING SYSTEMS 147
8.6.1 Types of mixing systems 147
8.6.2 Dimensioning of mixing facilities 149
8.7 PERSPECTIVES AND OUTLOOK 149
8.8 REFERENCES 150
9 Air emissions 155
9.1 INTRODUCTION 155
9.2 REGULATIONS AND LEGISLATION 155
9.3 AS EMISSIONS MECHANISMS 156
9.3.1 AS aeration basins overview 160
9.3.1.1 Emission mechanisms 160
9.3.1.2 Key factors affecting emissions 160
9.3.2 Air emissions inventory programs 161
9.4 IMPACTS AND TREATMENT OF EMISSIONS 162
9.4.1 Odorous emissions 162
9.4.2 Air toxics and VOCs 162
9.4.3 GHG emissions 163
9.4.3.1 CH4 163
9.4.3.2 N2O 164
9.5 TECHNIQUES USED TO ASSESS EMISSIONS 165
9.6 CONCLUSIONS 166
9.7 REFERENCES 167
10 Activated sludge solids separation 171
10.1 REQUIREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT OF SEPARATION 171
10.1.1 Requirements for good AS separation 171
10.1.2 Basic measurements 172
10.1.3 Microscopic examination of floc structure 172
10.2 AS SEPARATION PROBLEMS 173
10.3 FILAMENTOUS BULKING CONTROL METHODS 174
10.3.1 Theory and causes of filamentous bulking 174
10.3.1.1 The most important filamentous microorganisms 175
10.3.2 Principles of selection 176
10.3.2.1 Bioengineering bulking control methods 176
10.3.2.2 Control measures using knowledge of filament ecophysiology (metabolic selection) 180
10.3.2.3 Non-specific, abiotic bulking control methods 180
10.3.3 Practical measures for controlling filamentous bulking 181
10.3.3.1 Bioreactor configuration for filamentous bulking control 181
10.3.3.2 Adjustment of DO level 184
10.4 CONTROL OF MICROFLOC FORMATION 186
10.5 CONTROL OF VISCOUS BULKING 187
10.6 CONTROL OF AS FOAMING 188
10.7 FUTURE OUTLOOK 189
10.8 REFERENCES 191
11 Secondary clarifiers 195
11.1 INTRODUCTION 195
11.2 SIZING AND RATING 196
11.2.1 Overview 196
11.2.2 The first 50 years (1913–1963) 196
11.2.3 The second 50 years (1964–2013) 200
11.3 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS OF SECONDARY CLARIFIERS 202
11.3.1 Managing mixed liquor with different sludge settling properties 202
11.3.2 Operational strategies for dynamic flow rates 203
11.3.3 Influences of nitrification and biological nutrient removal 204
11.4 RECTANGULAR SECONDARY CLARIFIERS 205
11.4.1 Overview 205
11.4.2 Overflow rate and depth 205
11.4.3 Sludge removal 206
11.4.4 Inlet structure 207
11.4.5 Outlet structure 208
11.5 CIRCULAR SECONDARY CLARIFIERS 209
11.5.1 Overview 209
11.5.2 The first 50 years (1913–1963) 209
11.5.3 The second 50 years (1964–2013) 211
11.6 FUTURE TRENDS 213
11.6.1 Overview 213
11.6.2 CFD models for design 213
11.6.3 Possibilities to increase capacity 214
11.7 REFERENCES 215
12 Energy considerations 221
12.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS 221
12.1.1 Introduction 221
12.1.2 Evolution of treatment efficiency from BOD removal only to nitrification, nutrient and micro-pollutant removal 222
12.1.3 Recent development of legal requirements for treatment efficiency (in developed countries) 223
12.2 ENERGY CONTENT OF WASTEWATER 223
12.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS 224
12.3.1 Introduction 224
12.3.2 Auditing and benchmarking 226
12.3.3 Economic considerations 227
12.3.4 Energy consumption of AS process 228
12.3.4.1 Aeration 228
12.3.4.2 Aeration control 229
12.3.4.3 Aeration system hardware 231
12.3.4.4 Dynamic model simulation for energy minimization 232
12.3.5 Pre-treatment by upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors 232
12.3.6 Other energy consumers (Hardware) 233
12.3.7 Wastewater treatment process developments for reduction of energy consumption 233
12.3.7.1 Introduction 233
12.3.7.2 Chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) 234
12.3.7.3 Two-stage AS processes 234
12.3.7.4 The deammonification process 235
12.4 ENERGY PRODUCTION AT WWTPS 236
12.4.1 Anaerobic sludge digestion 236
12.4.2 Increase of energy recovery from sludge digestion by enhanced solids degradation 237
12.4.3 Thermal sludge treatment 238
12.4.4 Heat recovery and utilization 238
12.5 SHOWCASE OF LOW ENERGY MUNICIPAL NUTRIENT REMOVAL PLANT: STRASS, AUSTRIA (90,000–200,000 PE) 239
12.6 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 239
12.6.1 Introduction 239
12.6.2 Mainstream anammox 240
12.6.3 Energy management tools 240
12.7 FINAL STATEMENT REGARDING ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS 240
12.8 REFERENCES 241
13 Automation and control 245
13.1 INTRODUCTION 245
13.2 THE ROLE OF CONTROL AND AUTOMATION 245
13.3 DISTURBANCES 247
13.4 THE EARLY YEARS OF AUTOMATION AND CONTROL 248
13.5 THE DEMAND 251
13.6 COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 251
13.7 OBSERVING THE PROCESS-MEASURING AND MONITORING 252
13.8 CONTROLLABILITY – MANIPULATING THE PROCESS 255
13.8.1 Control variables 256
13.8.2 Actuators 256
13.9 DYNAMIC MODELING AND SIMULATION 257
13.9.1 The importance of dynamics 257
13.9.2 Modeling 258
13.10 UNIT PROCESS CONTROL 259
13.11 FROM UNIT PROCESS TO PLANT-WIDE 262
13.12 CONCLUSIONS 263
13.13 REFERENCES 264
14 Modeling 271
14.1 INTRODUCTION 271
14.2 FUNDAMENTALS 272
14.2.1 Growth – Monod kinetics 272
14.2.2 Reduced yield 273
14.2.3 Yield coefficient and endogenous respiration rate 274
14.2.4 Inert endogenous residue generation 275
14.2.5 Substrate description – BOD, COD or TOC 275
14.2.6 Wastewater COD fractions 276
14.3 THE FIRST AS MODELS 276
14.3.1 Empirical models 276
14.3.2 Kinetic models 277
14.3.2.1 Eckenfelder model 277
14.3.2.2 McKinney model 278
14.3.2.3 Lawrence and McCarty model 278
14.3.2.4 Marais and Ekama model 279
14.3.2.5 ASM1 281
14.4 EXTENDED AS MODELS 282
14.4.1 Anoxic yield 282
14.4.2 Substrate storage 282
14.4.3 Influent colloidal material 283
14.4.4 Specific substrates and biomasses 283
14.4.5 Nitrification 284
14.4.6 P removal 284
14.4.7 pH 285
14.4.8 Gas Transfer 285
14.4.9 Precipitation 285
14.1 MODELING IN PRACTICE 286
14.5.1 Whole plant models 286
14.5.2 Engineering use 286
14.5.3 Research 287
14.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 287
14.7 REFERENCES 287
15 Hybrid systems 293
15.1 INTRODUCTION 293
15.2 AN OVERVIEW OF HYBRID SYSTEMS 294
15.2.1 Separated fixed-film, AS systems 294
15.2.2 Integrated fixed-film AS system (IFAS) 295
15.3 THE MBBR IFAS SYSTEM 297
15.3.1 Objectives and applications 297
15.3.2 Nitrification 298
15.3.3 Denitrification 301
15.3.4 Biological P removal 301
15.3.5 Biomass separation in IFAS systems 302
15.3.6 New applications of IFAS 303
15.4 MODELING OF IFAS SYSTEMS 303
15.5 DESIGN OF IFAS SYSTEMS 304
15.5.1 Design procedures 304
15.5.2 Compartment partition 307
15.5.3 Oxygen transfer 308
15.5.4 Approach velocity and screen design 309
15.6 OPERATION OF MBBR IFAS SYSTEMS 309
15.6.1 Full-scale MBBR IFAS examples 309
15.7 CONCLUSIONS 313
15.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 314
15.9 REFERENCES 314
16 Membrane bioreactors 319
16.1 INTRODUCTION 319
16.1.1 Definition 319
16.1.2 History 319
16.1.3 Commercial status 322
16.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 324
16.2.1 MBR design 324
16.2.2 Operation 324
16.3 PROCESS DEVELOPMENT 326
16.3.1 Biological treatment 326
16.4 MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY 331
16.4.1 Membrane material and configuration 331
16.4.2 The membrane technology 335
16.4.3 Other design aspects 337
16.5 CASE STUDY: TRAVERSE CITY 339
16.6 REFERENCES 341
17 Industrial wastewater treatment 343
17.1 HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL AS TREATMENT 343
17.2 INDUSTRIAL AS TREATMENT – STATE OF THE ART 344
17.2.1 Influence of industrial wastewater characteristics\rand loading 344
17.2.2 Industrial AS process technologies 347
17.2.2.1 Continuous-flow AS technologies for industrial wastewater treatment 347
17.2.2.2 Discontinuous-flow AS technologies for industrial wastewater treatment 353
17.3 SPECIAL TOPICS IN INDUSTRIAL AS TREATMENT 354
17.3.1 Selector application and use of chemicals for bulking control in industrial AS plants 354
17.3.2 Industrial wastewater aeration 355
17.3.3 Biostimulation and bioaugmentation 356
17.3.4 Partial nitritation/anammox technology 357
17.3.5 AS in aquaculture industry: biofloc technology 359
17.4 INDUSTRIAL AS TREATMENT – FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 360
17.5 REFERENCES 361
18 Planning and design 369
18.1 BIOLOGICAL PROCESS AND TRANSLATION INTO DESIGN PARAMETERS 369
18.1.1 The SRT concept 369
18.2 NITROGEN REMOVAL 370
18.3 PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL 371
18.4 PROCESS MODIFICATIONS 371
18.5 CONFIGURATION 372
18.5.1 Nitrogen removal 372
18.5.2 EBPR 373
18.6 DESIGN PROCEDURES 375
18.6.1 USA 376
18.6.2 Germany A 131 376
18.6.3 Japan 378
18.6.4 Pilot tests and modeling 379
18.7 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT 380
18.7.1 Space requirements 380
18.7.2 Emissions 380
18.7.3 Carbon footprint 380
18.8 SUSTAINABILITY 381
18.9 CONCLUSIONS 381
18.10 REFERENCES 381
19 Activated sludge process economics 383
19.1 INTRODUCTION 383
19.2 AS PROCESS COST ELEMENTS 384
19.2.1 Total costs of wastewater treatment 384
19.2.2 Differentiation of cost elements 384
19.2.3 AS operating costs 385
19.3 COMPARISION OF AS COSTS TO OTHER WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES 387
19.3.1 Trickling filters 387
19.3.2 Biofiltration 388
19.3.3 Membrane bioreactor systems 388
19.4 COST CONTROL IN PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 389
19.4.1 Planning 389
19.4.2 Operation 390
19.4.2.1 Benchmarking 390
19.4.2.2 Energy auditing and energy benchmarking 392
19.5 OPTIONS FOR DECREASING TREATMENT COSTS 393
19.5.1 Alternative treatment concepts 393
19.5.1.1 Hybrid® process 393
19.5.1.2 Lamella settling 393
19.5.1.3 IFAS processes 394
19.5.1.4 Nereda®-process 395
19.5.2 Reducing capital costs 396
19.5.2.1 Chemically enhanced primary treatment 396
19.5.2.2 Options for influencing SVI 396
19.5.3 Reducing (external) energy consumption 397
19.5.4 Reducing sludge processing and disposal costs 399
19.5.5 Reducing personnel cost 400
19.6 CONCLUSIONS 400
19.7 REFERENCES 402
20 The next 100 years 407
20.1 WASTEWATER TREATMENT: A HISTORY OF PROCESS INTENSIFICATION 407
20.1.1 History 407
20.1.2 Wastewater treatment a history of process intensification 408
20.1.3 General developments for future WWTPs 409
20.1.4 Performance criteria for future municipal wastewater treatment plants 410
20.1.4.1 Water 410
20.1.4.2 Solids 410
20.1.4.3 Air 411
20.1.4.4 Energy 411
20.1.4.5 Chemicals 411
20.2 PROCESS INTENSIFICATION 411
20.2.1 Improving SVI or granular sludge 411
20.2.2 Hybrid biological processes 413
20.3 IMPROVED EFFLUENT QUALITY 413
20.3.1 Exploring natural diversity 413
20.3.2 Emerging pollutants 414
20.3.3 Optimize process design 414
20.4 ENERGY NEUTRALITY/MINIMUM CLIMATE IMPACT 414
20.4.1 Energy consumption and recovery 415
20.4.2 Mainstream anammox 416
20.4.3 Energy recovery from low temperature and thermal treatment 417
20.5 RESOURCE RECOVERY 417
20.5.1 Water 417
20.5.2 P and N recovery 418
20.5.3 Organics 419
20.6 INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONALITIES 419
20.6.1 Water supply and wastewater in an integrated urban water cycle 419
20.6.2 Water and energy 420
20.6.3 Centralized vs. De-centralized systems 420
20.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 421
20.8 REFERENCES 421

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