BOOK
Best Practice Guide on the Control of Arsenic in Drinking Water
Prosun Bhattacharya | David Polya | Dragana Jovanovic
(2017)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Arsenic in drinking water derived from groundwater is arguably the biggest environmental chemical human health risk known at the present time, with well over 100,000,000 people around the world being exposed. Monitoring the hazard, assessing exposure and health risks and implementing effective remediation are therefore key tasks for organisations and individuals with responsibilities related to the supply of safe, clean drinking water.
Best Practice Guide on the Control of Arsenic in Drinking Water, covering aspects of hazard distribution, exposure, health impacts, biomonitoring and remediation, including social and economic issues, is therefore a very timely contribution to disseminating useful knowledge in this area. The volume contains 10 short reviews of key aspects of this issue, supplemented by a further 14 case studies, each of which focusses on a particular area or technological or other practice, and written by leading experts in the field. Detailed selective reference lists provide pointers to more detailed guidance on relevant practice.
The volume includes coverage of (i) arsenic hazard in groundwater and exposure routes to humans, including case studies in USA, SE Asia and UK; (ii) health impacts arising from exposure to arsenic in drinking water and biomonitoring approaches; (iii) developments in the nature of regulation of arsenic in drinking water; (iv) sampling and monitoring of arsenic, including novel methodologies; (v) approaches to remediation, particularly in the context of water safety planning, and including case studies from the USA, Italy, Poland and Bangladesh; and (vi) socio-economic aspects of remediation, including non-market valuation methods and local community engagement.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| About the Editors | xv | ||
| Authors | xvii | ||
| Acknowledgements | xxi | ||
| Acronyms | xxiii | ||
| Definitions | xxv | ||
| About this Best Practice Guide | xxvii | ||
| Disclaimer | xxix | ||
| Foreword | xxxi | ||
| Dedication | xxxiii | ||
| Executive summary | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 1: Arsenic in drinking water: sources & human exposure | 1 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION | 1 | ||
| 1.2 ARSENIC IN GROUNDWATER SOURCES | 2 | ||
| 1.2.1 Origin of high arsenic groundwaters | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1.1 Arsenic-bearing source materials | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1.1.1 Arsenic in rocks, minerals, soils and sediments | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1.1.2 Anthropogenic sources of arsenic | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1.2 Arsenic contamination & mobilization processes | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1.3 Slow arsenic removal processes | 6 | ||
| 1.2.2 Nature of high arsenic groundwaters | 6 | ||
| 1.2.3 Distribution of high arsenic groundwaters | 7 | ||
| 1.3 ARSENIC IN SURFACE WATER SOURCES | 9 | ||
| 1.4 GLOBAL EXPOSURE SCENARIO | 9 | ||
| 1.4.1 Exposure routes | 9 | ||
| 1.4.2 Exposure and bioavailability | 10 | ||
| 1.5 EXPOSURE THROUGH DRINKING WATER | 10 | ||
| 1.5.1 Global distribution of exposure to high arsenic (>10 µg/L) drinking water | 10 | ||
| 1.5.2 Drinking water intake rates | 11 | ||
| 1.6 EXPOSURE THROUGH THE FOOD CHAIN | 12 | ||
| 1.7 IMPORTANCE OF NON-ARSENIC PARAMETERS | 13 | ||
| 1.8 CONCLUSIONS | 13 | ||
| 1.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 13 | ||
| 1.10 REFERENCES | 14 | ||
| Chapter 2: Public health effects of arsenic exposure | 25 | ||
| 2.1 ARSENIC EXPOSURE AND HEALTH EFFECTS | 25 | ||
| 2.2 NON-CARCINOGENIC HEALTH EFFECTS OF LOW-LEVEL ARSENIC EXPOSURE | 26 | ||
| 2.3 CARCINOGENIC HEALTH EFFECTS OF LOW-LEVEL ARSENIC EXPOSURE | 27 | ||
| 2.4 REFERENCES | 29 | ||
| Chapter 3: Health surveillance and biomonitoring | 33 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 33 | ||
| 3.2 BIOMARKERS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE | 34 | ||
| 3.3 REFERENCES | 36 | ||
| Chapter 4: Regulatory aspects of Arsenic in drinking water | 39 | ||
| 4.1 HISTORY OF ARSENIC REGULATION | 39 | ||
| 4.2 PRINCIPLES OF GUIDELINE VALUE DERIVATION & THE CASE OF ARSENIC | 40 | ||
| 4.3 DERIVATION OF THE WHO GUIDELINE VALUE FOR ARSENIC | 41 | ||
| 4.4 DERIVATION OF US EPA ARSENIC REGULATION | 42 | ||
| 4.5 UNCERTAINTIES AND DISCUSSIONS IN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF ARSENIC | 43 | ||
| 4.6 DEROGATIONS, TEMPORARILY LIMITED VALUES, HEALTH ADVISORIES | 44 | ||
| 4.7 REGULATORY PROSPECTS | 45 | ||
| 4.8 REFERENCES | 46 | ||
| Chapter 5: Sampling and analysis for monitoring arsenic in drinking water | 49 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 49 | ||
| 5.2 DATA REQUIREMENTS | 50 | ||
| 5.2.1 Overall aims of monitoring | 50 | ||
| 5.2.2 Representativeness | 50 | ||
| 5.2.2.1 Speciation | 50 | ||
| 5.2.2.2 Spatial and temporal variations | 51 | ||
| 5.2.2.3 Contamination during sampling | 52 | ||
| 5.2.2.4 Preservation | 52 | ||
| 5.2.3 Data & data quality objectives (DQOs) | 52 | ||
| 5.2.3.1 Field site related parameters | 52 | ||
| 5.2.3.2 Analytes | 52 | ||
| 5.2.3.3 DQOs – required chemical measurement performance characteristics | 53 | ||
| 5.3 SAMPLING STRATEGIES/DESIGN | 54 | ||
| 5.4 SAMPLING/PRESERVATION PROTOCOLS | 55 | ||
| 5.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS | 55 | ||
| 5.5.1 Analytical instrumentation | 56 | ||
| 5.5.1.1 Total arsenic | 56 | ||
| 5.5.1.2 Arsenic speciation | 56 | ||
| 5.5.1.2.1 Colorimetry and UV-Visible spectrophotometry | 56 | ||
| 5.5.1.2.2 Ion exchange – solid phase extraction (SPE) | 57 | ||
| 5.5.1.2.3 Biosensors | 57 | ||
| 5.5.2 Analytical & data reduction protocols | 58 | ||
| 5.5.2.1 Control samples & standards | 58 | ||
| 5.5.2.2 Order of Analysis – randomisation | 58 | ||
| 5.5.2.3 Data reduction – calibration models | 58 | ||
| 5.6 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM), QA & QC | 62 | ||
| 5.6.1 Total quality management | 62 | ||
| 5.7 CONCLUSION | 62 | ||
| 5.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 63 | ||
| 5.9 REFERENCES | 63 | ||
| Chapter 6: Selection of arsenic remediation strategies in the context of Water Safety Plans | 67 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 67 | ||
| 6.2 WATER SAFETY PLANS | 67 | ||
| 6.3 VARIATIONS IN WATER SAFETY PLAN APPROACHES | 69 | ||
| 6.4 BENEFITS IN THE UPTAKE OF WATER SAFETY PLAN APPROACHES | 70 | ||
| 6.5 CHALLENGES IN THE UPTAKE OF WATER SAFETY PLAN APPROACHES | 71 | ||
| 6.5.1 Community-identified challenges in developing regions (Bangladesh Case Study) | 71 | ||
| 6.5.2 Challenges regarding human aspects and community readiness | 71 | ||
| 6.5.3 Challenges regarding leadership engagement and buy-in | 72 | ||
| 6.5.4 Challenges regarding linkages with business-based risk models | 73 | ||
| 6.6 SELECTION OF REMEDIATION STRATEGIES IN-PRACTICE | 73 | ||
| 6.7 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR REMEDIATION DECISION-MAKING | 75 | ||
| 6.8 CONCLUSIONS | 76 | ||
| 6.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 76 | ||
| 6.10 REFERENCES | 77 | ||
| Chapter 7: Arsenic remediation of drinking water: an overview | 79 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 79 | ||
| 7.2 AQUEOUS CHEMISTRY OF ARSENIC | 80 | ||
| 7.3 ARSENIC REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES | 80 | ||
| 7.3.1 Precipitation | 81 | ||
| 7.3.2 Adsorption and ion exchange | 82 | ||
| 7.3.3 Membrane filtration | 85 | ||
| 7.3.4 Oxidation | 88 | ||
| 7.3.5 Bioremediation: biosorption and biological oxidation | 89 | ||
| 7.3.6 Alternate sources/source switching | 90 | ||
| 7.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 90 | ||
| 7.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 91 | ||
| 7.6 REFERENCES | 91 | ||
| Chapter 8: Sustainable arsenic mitigation – from field trials to implementation for control of arsenic in drinking water supplies in Bangladesh | 99 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 99 | ||
| 8.2 THE SASMIT ACTION RESEARCH AND IMPLEMENTATION | 101 | ||
| 8.2.1 Assessing available safe water options | 101 | ||
| 8.2.2 Perception of local tubewell drillers and practice for tubewell installation | 102 | ||
| 8.2.3 Two innovations for installation of safe tubewells | 102 | ||
| 8.2.3.1 Sediment Color Tool for targeting As-safe aquifers at shallow depths | 102 | ||
| 8.2.3.2 A simplified tool for the local drillers | 107 | ||
| 8.2.3.3 Intermediate Deep Tubewells (IDTW) – Newly explored source of safe drinking water | 107 | ||
| 8.2.4 Integration of technical and socioeconomic aspects for optimisation of safe water access | 108 | ||
| 8.2.5 Capacity building of the local drillers | 110 | ||
| 8.3 COMPLIANCE WITH THE POLICY REGIME OF SUSTAINABLE ARSENIC MITIGATION IN BANGLADESH | 110 | ||
| 8.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK | 111 | ||
| 8.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 112 | ||
| 8.6 REFERENCES | 112 | ||
| Chapter 9: Community awareness and engagement for arsenic management | 117 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND | 117 | ||
| 9.2 THE RATIONALE FOR MANAGEMENT OF THE COMMUNITY | 118 | ||
| 9.3 BARRIERS FOR MANAGEMENT OF THE COMMUNITY | 119 | ||
| 9.4 TOWARDS PARTICIPATORY METHODS | 120 | ||
| 9.5 MANAGEMENT WITH THE COMMUNITY | 121 | ||
| 9.6 SUMMARY: COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT FOR ARSENIC MANAGEMENT | 121 | ||
| 9.7 REFERENCES | 122 | ||
| Chapter 10: Valuing the damage of arsenic consumption: economic non-market valuation methods | 125 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 125 | ||
| 10.2 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS, WTP, ECONOMIC VALUE & QALYs | 126 | ||
| 10.3 VALUATION METHODS | 128 | ||
| 10.3.1 Value of a statistical life (VSL) | 128 | ||
| 10.3.2 Human capital approach | 129 | ||
| 10.3.3 Revealed preference methods | 129 | ||
| 10.3.3.1 Cost of illness | 129 | ||
| 10.3.3.2 Averting expenditures | 131 | ||
| 10.3.3.3 Hedonic pricing | 132 | ||
| 10.3.4 Stated preference | 133 | ||
| 10.3.4.1 Contingent valuation | 133 | ||
| 10.3.4.2 Choice experiments | 133 | ||
| 10.4 BENEFITS TRANSFER | 134 | ||
| 10.5 US EPA COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS | 134 | ||
| 10.6 CRITICAL ISSUES WITH COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS | 135 | ||
| 10.7 CONCLUSIONS | 136 | ||
| 10.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 137 | ||
| 10.9 REFERENCES | 137 | ||
| Chapter A1: Arsenic hazard and associated health risks: New England, USA aquifers | 141 | ||
| A1.1 INTRODUCTION | 141 | ||
| A1.1.1 Drinking water use in New England | 142 | ||
| A1.2 ARSENIC HAZARD IN NEW ENGLAND GROUNDWATER | 143 | ||
| A1.2.1 Arsenic in crystalline bedrock aquifers | 145 | ||
| A1.2.2 Controls on occurrence | 145 | ||
| A1.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISKS | 147 | ||
| A1.4 REFERENCES | 148 | ||
| Chapter A2: Geostatistical modelling of arsenic hazard in groundwater | 153 | ||
| A2.1 INTRODUCTION | 153 | ||
| A2.2 INPUT DATA | 154 | ||
| A2.2.1 Auxiliary raster-based data layers | 154 | ||
| A2.2.2 Calibration dataset | 155 | ||
| A2.3 MODELLING PROCEDURES | 156 | ||
| A2.3.1 Global scale arsenic hazard maps (Amini et al. 2008) | 156 | ||
| A2.3.2 Regional scale modelling of arsenic hazard | 157 | ||
| A2.3.3 Small-scale arsenic hazard modelling in three dimensions | 158 | ||
| A2.4 OPPORTUNITIES AND LIMITATIONS | 158 | ||
| A2.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 159 | ||
| A2.6 REFERENCES | 160 | ||
| Chapter A3: Estimating the population exposed to arsenic from groundwater-sourced private drinking water supplies in Cornwall, UK | 161 | ||
| A3.1 INTRODUCTION | 161 | ||
| A3.2 METHODS | 163 | ||
| A3.2.1 Recruitment of households with PWS | 163 | ||
| A3.2.2 Estimating the number of PWS and residents served in Cornwall | 163 | ||
| A3.2.3 Estimating the population exposed to arsenic in PWS | 164 | ||
| A3.3 RESULTS | 164 | ||
| A3.3.1 Estimating the number of PWS residents included in the survey | 164 | ||
| A3.3.2 Estimated Cornish population using PWS, from official records | 165 | ||
| A3.3.3 Estimating the population exposure distribution to drinking water arsenic | 165 | ||
| A3.4 DISCUSSION | 165 | ||
| A3.4.1 Guideline values, standards and health effects of arsenic in drinking water | 165 | ||
| A3.4.2 Public health advice given to households with exceedances | 166 | ||
| A3.4.3 Evaluating arsenic PCV exceedances | 167 | ||
| A3.4.4 Representativeness of samples and caveats | 167 | ||
| A3.5 CONCLUSIONS | 168 | ||
| A3.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 168 | ||
| A3.7 REFERENCES | 169 | ||
| Chapter A4: Hair arsenic as a reliable biomarker of exposure to arsenic in drinking water | 171 | ||
| A4.1 INTRODUCTION | 171 | ||
| A4.2 KEY RESULTS | 172 | ||
| A4.3 CONCLUSIONS | 175 | ||
| A4.4 REFERENCES | 175 | ||
| Chapter A5: Automated on-site arsenic monitoring | 177 | ||
| A5.1 INTRODUCTION | 177 | ||
| A5.1.1 Arsenic problem and regulations | 177 | ||
| A5.1.2 Arsenic remediation technologies | 177 | ||
| A5.1.3 Monitoring methods | 178 | ||
| A5.2 AUTOMATED ARSENIC ANALYSIS USING VOLTAMMETRY | 178 | ||
| A5.3 CASE STUDY: SAFEGUARD ANALYZER TO REGULATED CHEMICAL DOSAGE FOR WATER TREATMENT, CHAPARRAL ARIZONA | 179 | ||
| A5.4 REFERENCES | 181 | ||
| Chapter A6: ARSOlux – the arsenic biosensor | 183 | ||
| A6.1 INTRODUCTION | 183 | ||
| A6.1.1 Widely used arsenic detection technologies | 183 | ||
| A6.2 THE ARSOlux BIOSENSOR – A BIOLOGIC TOOL FOR ARSENIC DETECTION | 184 | ||
| A6.2.1 Principles | 184 | ||
| ARSOlux Manual | 184 | ||
| A6.2.2 Working range | 185 | ||
| A6.2.3 Performance and optimization | 185 | ||
| A6.3 ARSOlux AS A NEW SCREENING TOOL IN REGULAR WATER QUALITY MONITORING | 185 | ||
| A6.4 OUTLOOK | 186 | ||
| A6.5 REFERENCES | 186 | ||
| Chapter A7: Centralized arsenic removal from drinking water in the United States | 189 | ||
| A7.1 INTRODUCTION | 189 | ||
| A7.2 ARSENIC IN DRINKING WATER | 189 | ||
| A7.2.1 Aqueous chemistry of arsenic | 189 | ||
| A7.2.2 Arsenic removal technologies | 190 | ||
| A7.3 ION EXCHANGE | 190 | ||
| A7.4 COAGULATION-FILTRATION | 191 | ||
| A7.4.1 Basic CF system design | 191 | ||
| A7.4.1.1 Example of a CF plant | 191 | ||
| A7.4.1.2 Operating expenses at CG28 | 193 | ||
| A7.5 ADSORPTION | 193 | ||
| A7.5.1 Adsorption system design | 193 | ||
| A7.5.1.1 Example of an adsorption plant | 194 | ||
| A7.5.1.2 Operating expenses at El Mirage | 195 | ||
| A7.6 CONCLUSIONS | 195 | ||
| A7.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 196 | ||
| A7.8 REFERENCES | 196 | ||
| Chapter A8: Survey of real scale water treatment plants in Italy | 197 | ||
| A8.1 INTRODUCTION | 197 | ||
| A8.2 RESULTS | 197 | ||
| A8.2.1 Arsenic removal with chemical precipitation | 197 | ||
| A8.2.2 Arsenic removal with adsorption | 201 | ||
| A8.2.3 Arsenic removal with ion exchange | 202 | ||
| A8.2.4 Arsenic removal with membrane filtration | 203 | ||
| A8.2.5 Quality characteristics of the residuals produced by the treatments | 204 | ||
| A8.2.6 Cost of the technologies | 204 | ||
| A8.3 CONCLUSION | 205 | ||
| A8.4 REFERENCE | 205 | ||
| Chapter A9: Case studies on best practice in Italy | 207 | ||
| A9.1 CENTRALIZED PLANTS: CREMONA (ITALY) | 207 | ||
| A9.1.1 Water treatment | 207 | ||
| A9.1.2 Wastewater treatment | 210 | ||
| A9.1.3 Costs | 211 | ||
| A9.2 SMALL SCALE PLANT: GAVORRANO PLANT (GROSSETO) | 211 | ||
| A9.2.1 Water treatment | 212 | ||
| A9.2.2 Wastewater treatment | 214 | ||
| A9.2.3 Costs | 215 | ||
| A9.3 HOUSEHOLD SYSTEM: CANNETO S/O (MANTOVA) | 215 | ||
| A9.3.1 Water treatment | 215 | ||
| A9.3.2 Wastewater treatment | 217 | ||
| A9.3.3 Costs | 217 | ||
| A9.4 REFERENCE | 217 | ||
| Chapter A10: Remediation case study: drinking water treatment by AOCF to target <1 µg L-1 effluent arsenic concentration | 219 | ||
| A10.1 INTRODUCTION | 219 | ||
| A10.2 EVALUATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF AOCF | 220 | ||
| A10.2.1 Bench scale investigations | 220 | ||
| A10.2.2 Pilot scale investigations | 222 | ||
| A10.3 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK | 223 | ||
| A10.4 REFERENCES | 224 | ||
| Chapter A11: Control of arsenic in the European Union: Case studies from Poland | 227 | ||
| A11.1 INTRODUCTION | 227 | ||
| A11.2 BANSKA NIZNA – TREATMENT OF GEOTHERMAL WATER | 227 | ||
| A11.2.1 Site characteristics | 227 | ||
| A11.2.2 Hydrochemical data | 228 | ||
| A11.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations | 228 | ||
| A11.3 BOGUCIN – GROUNDWATER INTAKE WITH HIGH ARSENIC ACCOMPANIED WITH HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF IRON AND MANGANESE | 229 | ||
| A11.3.1 Site characteristics | 229 | ||
| A11.3.2 Hydrochemical data | 229 | ||
| A11.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS | 231 | ||
| A11.5 REFERENCES | 231 | ||
| Chapter A12: Arsenic removal from water by reverse osmosis technology | 233 | ||
| A12.1 INTRODUCTION | 233 | ||
| A12.2 AQUEOUS SPECIATION OF ARSENIC IN DRINKING WATER | 234 | ||
| A12.3 MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY FOR TREATMENT OF ARSENIC CONTAMINATED WATER | 234 | ||
| A12.3.1 Overview | 234 | ||
| A12.3.2 Reverse osmosis | 234 | ||
| A12.4 CONCLUSION | 237 | ||
| A12.5 REFERENCES | 237 | ||
| Chapter A13: Case study: the social context of arsenic regulation and exposure in South East Hungary | 239 | ||
| A13.1 INTRODUCTION | 239 | ||
| A13.2 KEY ACTORS IN MEETING ARSENIC REGULATIONS | 240 | ||
| A13.2.1 Roles and responsibilities for drinking water management | 240 | ||
| A13.2.2 Actions for controlling arsenic in drinking water | 241 | ||
| A13.3 EXPLAINING ACTIONS FOR MEETING ARSENIC REGULATIONS | 242 | ||
| A13.3.1 The decisions of the municipalities | 242 | ||
| A13.3.2 Rationale for decisions made | 244 | ||
| A13.4 CONCLUSIONS: THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF ARSENIC REGULATION AND EXPOSURE | 245 | ||
| A13.5 REFERENCES | 245 | ||
| Chapter A14: Groundwater sampling, arsenic analysis and risk communication: Cambodia case study | 247 | ||
| A14.1 INTRODUCTION | 247 | ||
| A14.2 DATA REQUIREMENTS & METHODS | 247 | ||
| A14.2.1 Overall aims of monitoring | 247 | ||
| A14.2.2 Representativeness | 248 | ||
| A14.2.2.1 Speciation | 248 | ||
| A14.2.2.2 Spatial and temporal variations | 248 | ||
| A14.2.2.3 Contamination during sampling | 248 | ||
| A14.2.2.4 Preservation | 249 | ||
| A14.2.3 Data & Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) | 249 | ||
| A14.2.3.1 Field site related parameters | 249 | ||
| A14.2.3.2 Analytes | 249 | ||
| A14.2.3.3 DQOs – required chemical measurement performance characteristics | 249 | ||
| A14.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS & TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT | 249 | ||
| A14.3.1 Analytical methods | 249 | ||
| A14.3.2 Analytical & data reduction protocols | 250 | ||
| A14.3.2.1 Control samples & standards | 250 | ||
| A14.3.2.2 Order of analysis – randomisation | 250 | ||
| A14.3.2.3 Data reduction – calibration models | 250 | ||
| A14.3.3 Total quality management | 250 | ||
| A14.4 PRELIMINARY RESULTS | 250 | ||
| A14.5 RISK COMMUNICATION | 252 | ||
| A14.6 CONCLUSIONS | 254 | ||
| A14.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 254 | ||
| A14.8 REFERENCES | 254 | ||
| Author Index | 257 | ||
| Subject Index | 259 |