Faecal Sludge Management

Linda Strande; Damir Brdjanovic; Mariska Ronteltap

BOOK

Faecal Sludge Management

Linda Strande | Damir Brdjanovic | Mariska Ronteltap

(2014)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-473-8
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 428
Subjects: The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

It is estimated that literally billions of residents in urban and peri-urban areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America are served by onsite sanitation systems (e.g. various types of latrines and septic tanks). Until recently, the management of faecal sludge from these onsite systems has been grossly neglected, partially as a result of them being considered temporary solutions until sewer-based systems could be implemented. However, the perception of onsite or decentralized sanitation technologies for urban areas is gradually changing, and is increasingly being considered as long-term, sustainable options in urban areas, especially in low- and middle-income countries that lack sewer infrastructures.
This is the first book dedicated to faecal sludge management. It compiles the current state of knowledge of the rapidly evolving field of faecal sludge management, and presents an integrated approach that includes technology, management, and planning based on Sandecs 20 years of experience in the field. Faecal Sludge Management: Systems Approach for Implementation and Operation addresses the organization of the entire faecal sludge management service chain, from the collection and transport of sludge, and the current state of knowledge of treatment options, to the final end use or disposal of treated sludge. The book also presents important factors to consider when evaluating and upscaling new treatment technology options. The book is designed for undergraduate and graduate students, and engineers and practitioners in the field who have some basic knowledge of environmental and/or wastewater engineering.
Authors: Linda Strande,Eawag, Switzerland, Mariska Ronteltap, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands and Damir Brdjanovic, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover\r	Cover
Contents	xiii
Chapter 1: The Global Situation\r	1
1.1 INTRODUCTION	1
1.2 WHAT IS FAECAL SLUDGE?	1
1.3 GLOBAL RELEVANCE	1
1.4 BOOK OBJECTIVE	4
1.5 DESIGNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT TREATMENT ENDUSE	6
1.5.1 Systems approach	6
Chapter 2 Quantifi cation, Characterisation and Treatment Objectives	8
Chapter 3 Treatment Mechanisms	8
Chapter 4 Methods and Means for Collection and Transport	9
Chapter 5 Overview of Treatment Technologies	9
Chapter 6 Settling-Thickening Tanks	10
Chapter 7 Unplanted Drying Beds	10
Chapter 8 Planted Drying Beds	10
Chapter 9 Co-treatment with Wastewater	10
Chapter 10 Enduse of Treatment Products	10
Chapter 11 Operation, Maintenance and Monitoring	10
Chapter 12 Institutional Frameworks	11
Chapter 13 Financial Transfers and Responsibilities	11
Chapter 14 Assessment of the Initial Situation	11
Chapter 15 Stakeholder Analysis	11
Chapter 16 Stakeholder Engagement	11
Chapter 17 Planning Integrated Systems	11
Chapter 18 The Way Forward	11
Available Resources	12
Community-Led Urban Environmental Sanitation (CLUES), EAWAG/WSSCC/UN-Habitat	12
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies	12
How to Design Wastewater Systems for Local Conditions in Developing Countries (RTI/IWA)	13
Expanding your knowledge in a course	13
1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY	14
Chapter 2:\rFaecal Sludge Quantifi cation, Characterisation and Treatment Objectives	19
2.1 INTRODUCTION	19
2.2 QUANTIFICATION OF FAECAL SLUDGE	20
2.2.1 Sludge production method	21
2.2.2 Sludge collection method	22
2.3 CHARACTERISATION OF FAECAL SLUDGE	23
2.4 OPERATIONAL FACTORS THAT IMPACT THE VARIABILITY OF FAECAL SLUDGE	25
2.4.1 Toilet usage	25
2.4.2 Storage duration	25
2.4.3 Infl ow and infi ltration	25
2.4.4 Collection method	25
2.4.5 Climate	27
2.5 TREATMENT TARGETS	27
2.6 TREATMENT OBJECTIVES	27
2.6.1 Dewatering	27
2.6.2 Pathogens	27
2.6.3 Nutrients	28
2.6.4 Stabilisation	28
2.7 TREATMENT CONCERNS	29
2.8 SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND PROGRAMMES	29
2.9 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS	32
2.9.1 Nutrients	32
Nitrogen	33
Phosphorus	34
2.9.2 pH	34
2.9.3 Total solids	34
2.9.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand	35
2.9.5 Oil and grease	35
2.9.6 Grit and sand	35
2.9.7 Municipal solid waste	36
2.10 PATHOGENS IN FAECAL SLUDGE	37
2.10.1 The use of indicators	39
2.10.2 Coliform bacteria	39
Helminths	39
Viruses	41
2.11 CONCLUSION	41
2.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY	41
Additional Reading Material	43
Chapter 3: Treatment Mechanisms\r	45
3.1 INTRODUCTION	45
3.2 PHYSICAL MECHANISMS	46
3.2.1 Gravity separation	46
3.2.2 Filtration	48
3.2.3 Evaporation and evapotranspiration	50
3.2.4 Centrifugation	52
3.2.5 Heat drying	53
3.2.6 Screening	53
3.3 BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS	54
3.3.1 Metabolism	55
3.3.2 Temperature	56
3.3.3 Types of microorganisms	56
3.3.4 Aerobic treatment	56
3.3.5 Composting	57
3.3.6 Anaerobic treatment	58
3.3.7 Nitrogen cycling	59
Nitrification\r	60
Denitrification\r	60
Phosphorus cycling	60
3.3.8 Pathogen reduction	61
Temperature	61
Time	62
Sorption	62
Desiccation	62
UV	62
pH	62
3.4 CHEMICAL MECHANISMS	62
3.4.1 Alkaline stabilisation	63
3.4.2 Ammonia treatment	63
3.4.3 Coagulation and fl occulation	63
3.4.4 Conditioning	64
3.4.5 Disinfection of liquid effl uents	64
3.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY	64
Chapter 4: Methods and Means for Collection and Transport of Faecal Sludge\r	67
4.1 INTRODUCTION	67
4.2 TYPICAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES	68
4.2.1 Interfacing with clients	69
4.2.2 Locating the system to be emptied	70
4.2.3 Determining accessibility	71
Width of the road	71
Access to the site	71
Location of the site	71
4.2.4 Tools of the trade	72
4.3 PROPERTIES OF FAECAL SLUDGE IN RELATION TO COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT	73
4.4 MANUAL COLLECTION	73
4.4.1 Cartridge containment devices	73
4.4.2 Direct lift	74
4.5 MANUALLY OPERATED MECHANICAL COLLECTION	74
4.5.1 Sludge Gulper	74
4.5.2 Manually operated diaphragm pumps	75
4.5.3 Nibbler	77
4.5.4 MAPET	77
4.5.5 Comparison of equipment	77
4.6 FULLY MECHANISED COLLECTION	78
4.6.1 Motorised diaphragm pumps	78
4.6.2 Trash pump	79
4.6.3 Motorised pit screw auger	79
4.6.4 Gobbler	80
4.6.5 Vehicle-mounted vacuum equipment	80
Conventional vacuum trucks	80
BREVAC	81
Vacutug	83
4.6.6 Delivering vehicle-mounted vacuum services	83
4.6.7 Summary of fully mechanised systems	85
4.7 TRANSPORT OF FAECAL SLUDGE	86
4.7.1 Manual transport	86
4.7.2 Motorised transport	87
4.7.3 Delivering faecal sludge to the treatment plant or transfer station	87
4.8 TRANSFER STATIONS\r	89
4.8.1 Introduction	89
4.8.2 Types of transfer stations	89
Fixed transfer stations	89
Mobile transfer stations	90
4.8.3 Siting of transfer stations	90
Optimising coverage	90
Land availability	90
Acceptance	91
Access	91
4.9 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY	93
4.9.1 Physical hazards	93
4.9.2 Chemical hazards	93
4.9.3 Biological hazards	93
4.9.4 Other hazards	93
4.9.5 Mitigating risks	93
4.10 CONCLUSION	94
4.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY	94
Additional Reading Material	96
Chapter 5:\rOverview of Treatment Technologies	97
5.1 INTRODUCTION	97
5.2 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW	98
5.3 ESTABLISHED FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES	100
5.3.1 Co-composting of faecal sludge	100
Potential advantages and constraints of co-composting	101
5.3.2 Co-treatment in waste stabilisation ponds	102
Potential advantages and constraints of waste stabilisation ponds	104
5.3.3 Deep row entrenchment	104
Potential advantages and constraints of deep row entrenchment	104
5.4 TRANSFERRED SLUDGE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES	106
5.4.1 Anaerobic digestion	106
Experience with faecal sludge	106
Potential advantages and constraints of anaerobic digestion for faecal sludge management	107
5.4.2 Imhoff tank	107
Potential advantages and constraints of Imhoff tanks	108
5.4.3 Sludge incineration	108
Potential advantages and constraints of sludge incineration	108
5.4.4 Mechanical sludge treatment	109
Potential advantages and constraints of mechanical sludge treatment	109
5.4.5 Lime addition	110
Potential advantages and constraints of lime treatment	110
5.5 INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT	111
5.5.1 Vermicomposting	111
Potential advantages and constraints of vermicomposting	112
5.5.2 Black Soldier flies\r	112
Potential advantages and constraints of Black Soldier fl ies	113
5.5.3 Ammonia treatment	113
Potential advantages and constraints of ammonia treatment	113
5.5.4 Thermal drying and pelletising	114
Potential advantages and constraints of thermal drying	115
Potential advantages and constraints of sludge drying and pelletising	116
5.5.5 Solar drying	116
Potential advantages and constraints of solar drying	117
5.6 SELECTING TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES	117
5.7 CONCLUSIONS	120
5.8 BIBILOGRAPHY	120
Chapter 6: Settling-Thickening Tanks\r	123
6.1 INTRODUCTION	123
6.2 FUNDAMENTAL MECHANISMS	125
6.2.1 Settling	125
6.2.2 Thickening	126
6.2.3 Flotation	126
6.2.4 Anaerobic digestion	127
6.2.5 Solids-liquid zones	127
6.3 DESIGN OF SETTLING-THICKENING TANKS	127
6.3.1 Laboratory tests and faecal sludge characteristics infl uencing the design	127
6.3.2 Tank surface and length	129
6.3.3 Tank volume	129
6.3.4 Inlet and outlet configuration\r	131
6.4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SETTLING-THICKENING TANKS	132
6.4.1 Sludge and scum removal	132
6.4.2 Start-up period and seasonal variations	133
6.5 PERFORMANCE OF SETTLING-THICKENING TANKS	135
6.5.1 Solids-liquid separation	135
6.5.2 Treatment performance	135
6.6 ADVANTAGES AND CONSTRAINTS OF SETTLING-THICKENING TANKS	136
6.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR A SETTLING-THICKENING TANK	136
6.7.1 Initial situation	136
6.7.2 Assumptions and design decisions	136
6.7.3 Design calculations	137
Thickening zone volume	137
Tank configuration\r	137
Zone depth	137
6.7.4 Mass fl ow analysis of faecal sludge treatment	138
6.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY	139
Chapter 7: Unplanted Drying Beds\r	141
7.1 INTRODUCTION	141
7.2 TREATMENT PRINCIPLE	141
7.3 UNPLANTED SLUDGE DRYING BED DESIGN PARAMETERS	142
7.3.1 Climate factors	142
7.3.2 Type of faecal sludge	143
7.3.3 Sludge loading rate	145
7.3.4 Thickness of the sludge layer	145
7.3.5 Number of beds	146
7.3.6 Summary of design parameters	146
7.4 CONSTRUCTION OF AN UNPLANTED SLUDGE DRYING BED	147
7.4.1 Gravel and sand	147
7.4.2 Sludge removal	148
7.5 QUALITY OF DRIED SLUDGE AND LEACHATE	149
7.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE	151
7.6.1 Example 1: Known drying time (two weeks per bed at a loading depth of 20 cm)	151
7.6.2 Example 2: Design for settled sludge under good climate conditions	151
7.7 INNOVATIONS AND ADAPTATIONS IN SLUDGE DRYING BEDS	151
7.7.1 Piping systems	152
7.7.2 Greenhouses	152
7.7.3 Wedge wire	152
7.7.4 Additives to the sludge to enhance drying	153
7.8 CONCLUSIONS	153
7.9 REFERENCES	153
Chapter 8:\rPlanted Drying Beds	155
8.1 INTRODUCTION	155
8.2 MACROPHYTES	157
8.3 TREATMENT MECHANISMS	159
8.3.1 Infiltration (percolation)\r	159
8.3.2 Evapotranspiration	159
8.3.3 Stabilisation/mineralisation	160
8.3.4 Oxygen transfer	160
8.4 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS	161
8.4.1 Dewatering	161
8.4.2 Nutrient removal	162
8.4.3 Fate of heavy metals	163
8.4.4 Pathogen removal	164
8.4.5 Other considerations	164
8.5 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION	165
8.6 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE	168
8.6.1 Commissioning/start-up\r	168
8.6.2 Loading rates and sludge accumulation	169
8.6.3 Feeding frequency and resting phase	170
8.6.4 Plant harvesting and regrowth	171
8.6.5 Bed emptying	171
8.6.6 Leachate	171
8.6.7 Factors affecting performance	172
8.7 COSTS AND BENEFITS	172
8.8 EXAMPLE PROBLEM	173
8.8.1 Practice question	173
8.9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	174
8.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY	174
Chapter 9: Co-treatment of Faecal Sludge in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants\r	177
9.1 INTRODUCTION	177
9.2 FAECAL SLUDGE BIODEGRADABILITY AND FRACTIONATION\r	178
9.2.1 Characterisation ratios	178
9.2.2 Biodegradability and fractionation	179
9.2.3 Faecal sludge strength	182
9.3 CO-TREATMENT IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS\r	184
9.3.1 Influence on removal effi ciencies and effluent quality\r	184
9.3.2 Effects on oxygen demand	185
9.3.3 Impact on sludge generation	186
9.3.4 Impact on aeration requirements	187
9.3.5 Impact on secondary settling tanks	188
9.3.6 Effects of the dynamic discharge of faecal sludge	189
9.4 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CO-TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS	189
9.5 ANAEROBIC CO-TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE	192
9.5.1 COD overloading	193
UASB	193
Anaerobic digesters	194
Ponds	195
9.5.2 Ammonia inhibition	195
9.5.3 pH variations	195
9.5.4 Sulphide inhibition	196
9.6 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CO-TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE IN ANAEROBIC SYSTEMS	196
9.7 CONCLUSIONS	198
9.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY	198
Chapter 10: Enduse of Treatment Products\r	203
10.1 INTRODUCTION	203
10.2 RESOURCE RECOVERY OPTIONS	204
10.3 GENERAL CONCERNS	204
10.3.1 Pathogens	204
10.3.2 Heavy metals	205
10.3.3 Social factors	206
10.4 USE OF FAECAL SLUDGE AS A SOIL CONDITIONER	206
10.4.1 Nutrient content	207
10.4.2 Untreated faecal sludge	208
Deep row entrenchment	208
Land application	209
10.4.3 Treated faecal sludge in land application	209
Sludge from drying beds	209
Co-composting	209
Vermicomposting	210
Pellets	210
10.5 USE OF LIQUID STREAMS	211
10.5.1 Untreated liquid faecal sludge in irrigation	211
10.5.2 Treated effluent enduse and disposal\r	212
10.6 ADDITIONALFORMS OF RESOURCE RECOVERY	214
10.6.1 Protein	214
10.6.2 Fodder and plants	214
10.6.3 Fish and plants	216
10.6.4 Building materials	216
10.6.5 Biofuels	217
Biogas	217
Incineration/co-combustion	218
Pyrolysis/gasifi cation	219
Biodiesel	222
10.7 GRIT SCREENINGS	223
10.13 BIBLIOGRAPHY	223
Chapter 11: Operation, Maintenance and Monitoring of Faecal Sludge\rTreatment Plant	231
11.1 INTRODUCTION	231
11.2 INTEGRATING O&M INTO THE FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANT PLANNING PROCESS	233
11.2.1 Location of the faecal sludge treatment plant	233
11.2.2 Volumes and schedules of faecal sludge delivery	233
11.2.3 Availability of local resources	234
11.2.4 Degree of mechanisation of technologies	235
11.2.5 Final enduse or disposal of treatment products	235
11.3 RECEIVING FAECAL SLUDGE AT THE TREATMENT PLANT	235
11.3.1 Traffic\rcontrol	235
11.3.2 Approving faecal sludge for discharge	236
11.4 OPERATION & MAINTENANCE PLANS	237
11.4.1 Operational procedures	237
11.4.2 Maintenance procedures	238
11.5 ASSET MANAGEMENT	238
11.6 MONITORING	240
11.6.1 Monitoring of physical-chemical and microbiological parameters	240
11.6.2 Analysis manual	241
11.7 RECORDKEEPING	242
11.7.1 Operator’s log book	243
11.7.2 Reception monitoring reports	243
11.7.3 Treatment unit operation sheets	243
11.7.4 Interpretation and communication of technical data	244
11.8 PLANT SECURITY AND SAFETY	244
11.8.1 Health and safety	244
11.8.2 Personal protective equipment	245
11.8.3 Infection control	246
11.8.4 Emergency contact procedures	246
11.8.5 Protection against falling and drowning hazards	246
11.8.6 Confined spaces\r	247
11.8.7 Electrical safety	247
11.9 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT	247
11.9.1 Financial procedures	247
11.9.2 Human resource management	248
11.9.3 Staffing, roles and responsibilities\r	248
Plant superintendent	249
Plant engineer	250
Plant operator	250
Plant maintenance technician	250
11.10 COORDINATION	250
11.11 STARTUP PERIOD	251
11.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY	253
Chapter 12: Institutional Frameworks for Faecal Sludge Management\r	255
12.1 INTRODUCTION	255
12.2 SUCCESS FACTORS	256
12.3 ENABLING REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT	259
12.4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS\r	262
12.4.1 Overview of the service chain organisation	262
12.4.2 Role distribution among the stakeholders	264
12.4.3 Institutional arrangements for colection and transport	265
12.4.4 Institutional arrangements for treatment of faecal sludge	268
12.4.5 Institutional arrangements for enduse and disposal	270
12.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY	270
Chapter 13: Financial Transfers and Responsibility in Faecal Sludge Management Chains\r	273
13.1 INTRODUCTION	273
13.2 FINANCIAL MODELS\r	274
13.2.1 Stakeholders involved in financial transfers\r	274
13.2.2 Financial transfers	275
13.3 FINANCIAL FLOW MODELS	279
13.4 FINANCIAL PERSPECTIVE OF A COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT ENTERPRISE	286
13.4.1 Future perspectives	287
13.4.2 Case study example	288
13.4.3 Problem information	289
13.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY	290
Chapter 14:\rAssessment of the Initial Situation	295
14.1\rINTRODUCTION	295
14.2\rTOOLS AND METHODS FOR DATA COLLECTION	297
14.2.1\rLiterature review	298
14.2.2\rSemi-structured interviews	298
14.2.3\rHousehold-level surveys	301
14.2.4\rQualitative field observations	303
14.2.5\rMapping	304
14.2.6\rLaboratory analyses	304
14.2.7\rStrengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis	305
14.3\rDATA TO BE COLLECTED	306
14.3.1\rGeneral context	306
14.3.2\rSanitation sector	306
14.3.3\rProfile of manual and mechanical service providers	307
14.3.4\rPractices at household level	308
14.3.5\rLegal and regulatory framework	308
14.3.6\rEstimation of design parameters	309
14.3.7\rClimatic data	309
14.3.8\rSpatial data and city structure	309
14.3.9\rEnduse practices and market studies	310
14.4\rCHARACTERISATION, EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF TREATMENT SITES	312
14.4.1\rIdentification of treatment sites	313
14.4.2\rCharacterisation and evaluation criteria	314
14.4.3\rNumber of sites	315
14.4.4\rSludge from manual emptying	316
14.5\rBIBLIOGRAPHY	317
Chapter 15:\rStakeholder Analysis	319
15.1\rINTRODUCTION	319
15.2 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS: WHY AND HOW\r	321
15.3\rIDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS	322
15.3.1\rFaecal sludge management stakeholders	322
15.3.2\rDifferences between large and medium-sized cities	324
15.4 CHARACTERISATION OF STAKEHOLDERS\r	325
15.4.1\rInformation to be collected	325
15.4.2\rInfluence and interest	326
15.4.3\rSelection criteria for key stakeholders	327
15.4.4\rAmalgamation of FSM stakeholders' main characteristics and involvement needs	328
15.4.5\rPractical problems faced by faecal sludge management stakeholders	328
15.5\rIN PRACTICE: ITERATIVE SELECTION OF KEY STAKEHOLDERS	331
15.5.1\rSTEP1: Identification and preliminary characterisation of the stakeholders	331
15.5.2\rSTEP 2: Characterisation and selection of the key stakeholders	334
15.5.3\rSTEP 3: Reassessment of the key stakeholders according to the validated options	336
15.5.4\rSTEP 4: Reassessment according to the Action Plan	338
15.5.5\rSTEP 5: Reassessment before the inauguration of the faecal sludge management plant	339
15.6\rBIBLIOGRAPHY	339
Chapter 16:\rStakeholder Engagement	341
16.1\tINTRODUCTION	341
16.2\rTHE IMPORTANCE OF ENGAGING STAKEHOLDERS	342
16.3\rPARTICIPATION LEVELS	343
16.3.1\rFrom information to delegation	344
16.3.2\rDetermination of the participation levels based on the stakeholder analysis	344
16.3.3\rThe stakeholder participation matrix	345
16.4 INVOLVEMENT TOOLS\r	346
16.4.1\tList of involvement tools	346
16.4.2\rDetermining the most appropriate involvement tools	349
16.5\rMILESTONES AND CROSS-CUTTING TASKS	351
16.5.1\rMain milestones in the participatory process	351
16.5.2\rRaising awareness	352
16.5.3\rTraining and capacity building	353
16.6\rDISTRIBUTING AND FORMALISING ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES	355
16.6.1\rFormalisation documents	355
16.6.2\rDiagram of relationships	357
16.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY\r	362
Chapter 17:\rPlanning Integrated Faecal Sludge Management Systems	363
17.1\rINTRODUCTION	363
17.2 NEED FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH\r	367
17.2.1\rUnderstanding and working towards an enabling environment	368
17.2.2\rThe importance of a participatory approach	370
17.3\rPROPOSAL OF A PLANNING APPROACH AND LOGICAL FRAMEWORK	373
17.3.1\rExploratory and preliminary studies	376
17.3.2\rFeasibility study	377
17.3.3\rDetailed project development-Action Planning	377
17.3.4\rImplementation	378
17.3.5\rMonitoring and evaluation	378
17.4\rSELECTING CONTEXT-APPROPRIATE TECHNICAL OPTIONS	379
17.4.1\rCombination of services	379
17.4.2\rCriteria for selection of treatment options	380
17.4.3\rElimination-based approach	380
17.4.4\rSanitation system proposal	383
17.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY\r	387
Chapter 18: The Way Forward\r	389
18.1 INTRODUCTION	389
18.1.1 Acknowledging the importance of FSM	392
18.1.2 Setting up frameworks and responsibilities	393
18.1.3 Increasing knowledge dissemination and capacity development	393
18.1.4 Creating sustainable business models and fee structures	395
18.1.5 Implementingintegrated planning methodologies	396
18.1.6 Developing appropriate technologies	398
18.2 CHARACTERISATION OF FAECAL SLUDGE	398
18.3 COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT	400
18.4 SEMI-CENTRALISED TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES	400
18.5 ONSITE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES	400
18.6 RESOURCE RECOVERY	401
18.7 FINAL REMARKS	401
18.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY	402

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