BOOK
Nanotechnology for Water and Wastewater Treatment
Piet Lens | Jurate Virkutyte | Veeriah Jegatheesan | S. Al-Abed | Seung-Hyun Kim
(2013)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The rapid development of nanoscience enables a technology revolution that will soon impact virtually every facet of the water sector. Yet, there is still too little understanding of what nanoscience and nanotechnology is, what can it do and whether to fear it or not, even among the educated public as well as scientists and engineers from other disciplines. Despite the numerous books and textbooks available on the subject, there is a gap in the literature that bridges the space between the synthesis (conventional and more greener methods) and use (applications in the drinking water production, wastewater treatment and environmental remediation fields) of nanotechnology on the one hand and its potential environmental implications (fate and transport of nanomaterials, toxicity, Life Cycle Assessments) on the other. Nanotechnology for Water and Wastewater Treatment explores these topics with a broad-based multidisciplinary scope and can be used by engineers and scientists outside the field and by students at both undergraduate and post graduate level.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover\r | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Preface | xvi | ||
| List of Contributors | xix | ||
| Chapter 1:\rNanotechnology for water and wastewater treatment: potentials and limitations | 1 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY | 1 | ||
| 1.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY FORWATER ANDWASTEWATER TREATMENT | 3 | ||
| 1.3 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING APPLICATIONS AND CURRENT TRENDS\r | 5 | ||
| 1.3.1 New materials for membrane filtration | 5 | ||
| 1.3.2 Nanomaterials for catalysis and photocatalysis | 10 | ||
| 1.3.3 Nanomaterials for water disinfection | 12 | ||
| 1.3.4 Nanomaterials for pollutant adsorption | 14 | ||
| 1.3.4.1 Carbon based nanomaterials | 14 | ||
| 1.3.4.2 Metal based nanomaterials | 15 | ||
| 1.3.5 Nanoscale zero-valent iron | 16 | ||
| 1.4 PRACTICAL ASPECTS\r | 18 | ||
| 1.4.1 Technical developments for direct applicationsof nanoparticles in water treatment | 18 | ||
| 1.4.2 Costs and performance | 19 | ||
| 1.4.3 Toxicity, fate and transport of nanomaterials | 20 | ||
| 1.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 22 | ||
| REFERENCES | 22 | ||
| Chapter 2:\rEnvironmental and human health effects of nanomaterials used in water and waste water treatment | 26 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 26 | ||
| 2.2 EFFECTS OF MANUFACTURED NANOMATERIALS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT\r | 29 | ||
| 2.2.1 Human health | 29 | ||
| 2.2.1.1 Carbon based nanomaterials | 29 | ||
| 2.2.1.1.1 In vitro toxicity | 29 | ||
| 2.2.1.1.2 In vivo toxicity | 30 | ||
| 2.2.1.2 Metal based nanomaterials | 31 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.1 Titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) | 31 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.2 Nano-silver (nano-Ag) | 31 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.3 Iron oxide nanoparticles (FeO-NPs) | 32 | ||
| 2.2.2 Ecotoxicological effects | 33 | ||
| 2.2.2.1 Aquatic ecotoxicology | 33 | ||
| 2.2.2.1.1 Carbon based nanomaterials | 33 | ||
| 2.2.2.1.2 Metal based nanomaterials | 35 | ||
| 2.2.2.2 Terrestrial ecotoxicology | 37 | ||
| 2.2.2.2.1 Soil microorganisms | 37 | ||
| 2.2.2.2.2 Soil invertebrates | 38 | ||
| 2.2.2.2.3 Plants | 39 | ||
| 2.3 CONCLUSION | 41 | ||
| REFERENCES | 42 | ||
| Chapter 3:\rLife cycle assessment of nanomaterials: towards green nanotechnology | 58 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 58 | ||
| 3.2 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)\r | 59 | ||
| 3.2.1 What is LCA? | 59 | ||
| 3.2.2 Benefit of LCA | 59 | ||
| 3.2.3 ISO14040 series | 60 | ||
| 3.2.4 General limitation of LCA | 62 | ||
| 3.3 LCA FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY\r | 62 | ||
| 3.3.1 Nanotechnology and LCA | 62 | ||
| 3.3.2 Challenges, limitations and obstacles specific to nanotechnology (Kloepffer et al., 2007)\r | 63 | ||
| (i) Materials (Gavankar et al., 2012) | 64 | ||
| (ii) Applications (Christensen, 2010) | 64 | ||
| (iii) Uncertainty | 64 | ||
| 3.4 WATER RESEARCH AND LCA OF NANOMATERIALS | 66 | ||
| 3.5 OVERVIEW OF CASE STUDIES | 69 | ||
| 3.6 NEW APPROACHES TO THE LCA OF NANOMATERIALS | 70 | ||
| Life Cycle Thinking (Kloepffer et al., 2007) | 70 | ||
| Screening approach (Kloepffer et al., 2007) | 71 | ||
| Risk scenario analysis & risk trigger analysis (Wardak et al., 2008)\r | 71 | ||
| Screening Level Analysis (Gavankar et al., 2012) | 72 | ||
| Future Technology Analysis (Fleischer & Grunwald, 2008) | 73 | ||
| Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (Seager & Linkov, 2008) | 73 | ||
| Nano Risk Framework (Dupont) (Sellers, 2009) | 74 | ||
| XL Insurance Database Protocol (Sellers, 2009) | 74 | ||
| 3.7 SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENT | 74 | ||
| (i) Tandem LCA model | 74 | ||
| (ii) Comparative analysis with conventional technologies | 75 | ||
| (iii) Hot target identification | 76 | ||
| 3.8 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS | 76 | ||
| Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) (www.setac.org) | 76 | ||
| International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (www.iso.org) | 77 | ||
| Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (www.nanotechproject.org) | 77 | ||
| European Commission (ec.europa.eu/nanotechnology) | 77 | ||
| NanoImpactNet (www.nanoimpactnet.eu) | 77 | ||
| 3.9 CONCLUSIONS | 77 | ||
| GLOSSARY | 78 | ||
| REFERENCES | 78 | ||
| Chapter 4:\rPhysical and chemical analysis of nanoparticles | 82 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 82 | ||
| 4.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION PREFRACTIONATION | 83 | ||
| 4.2.1 Filtration | 83 | ||
| 4.2.2 Centrifugal-sedimentation techniques | 85 | ||
| 4.3 METHODS FOR DETERMINING BULK PARTICLE CONCENTRATION | 85 | ||
| 4.4 PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION\r | 87 | ||
| 4.4.1 Separation techniques | 87 | ||
| 4.4.1.1 Size exclusion chromatography | 88 | ||
| 4.4.1.2 Capillary electrophoresis | 91 | ||
| 4.4.1.3 Hydrodynamic chromatography | 91 | ||
| 4.4.1.4 Field flow fractionation | 92 | ||
| 4.4.2 Methods for assessing the shape, size distribution and surface structure of nanoparticles | 94 | ||
| 4.4.2.1 Scanning electron microscopy | 97 | ||
| 4.4.2.2 Transmission electron microscopy | 97 | ||
| 4.4.2.3 Atomic force microscopy | 98 | ||
| 4.4.2.4 Dynamic light scattering | 99 | ||
| 4.4.3 Methods for assessing the surface charge (Zeta potential) of nanoparticles | 100 | ||
| 4.4.4 Optical properties of nanoparticles | 101 | ||
| 4.4.4.1 UV-VIS spectrometry | 101 | ||
| 4.4.4.2 Near-field scanning optical microscopy | 103 | ||
| 4.5 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION\r | 104 | ||
| 4.5.1 Methods for measuring the elemental compositionof single nanoparticles | 104 | ||
| 4.5.1.1 Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy | 104 | ||
| 4.5.1.2 Electron energy loss spectrometry | 108 | ||
| 4.5.1.3 X-ray diffraction | 110 | ||
| 4.5.1.4 X-ray absorption spectroscopy | 110 | ||
| 4.5.1.5 Vibrational spectroscopy | 112 | ||
| 4.5.2 Methods for measuring the elemental composition of bulk nanoparticles | 114 | ||
| 4.5.2.1 Inductively coupled plasma spectrometry | 114 | ||
| 4.5.2.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy | 115 | ||
| 4.6 SUMMARY | 115 | ||
| REFERENCES | 116 | ||
| Chapter 5:\rMobility, fate and toxicity of nanomaterials/nanoparticles in water and wastewater | 125 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 125 | ||
| 5.2 RELEASE OF NANOMATERIALS/NANOPARTICLES INTO THE ENVIRONMENT | 126 | ||
| 5.3 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOMATERIALS/NANOPARTICLES\r | 134 | ||
| 5.3.1 Properties | 134 | ||
| 5.3.2 Analysis and characterization of nanoparticles | 134 | ||
| 5.4 FATE OF NANOMATERIALS/NANOPARTICLES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER\r | 136 | ||
| 5.4.1 Fate in aqueous environment | 136 | ||
| 5.4.1.1 Processes determining the fate of NMs/NPs | 136 | ||
| 5.4.1.2 Effect of NM/NP characteristics | 137 | ||
| 5.4.2 Fate in water treatment processes | 138 | ||
| 5.4.3 Fate in wastewater treatment processes | 140 | ||
| 5.4.3.1 Preliminary treatment | 140 | ||
| 5.4.3.2 Primary treatment | 140 | ||
| 5.4.3.3 Secondary treatment | 140 | ||
| 5.4.3.4 Tertiary treatment/membrane filtration | 143 | ||
| 5.5 TOXICITY AND IMPLICATIONS | 144 | ||
| 5.6 CONCLUSIONS | 146 | ||
| REFERENCES | 146 | ||
| Chapter 6:\rEffective phosphate removal using Ca-based layered double hydroxide nanomaterials | 151 | ||
| 6.1 LAYERED DOUBLE HYDROXIDE\r | 151 | ||
| 6.1.1 Introduction | 151 | ||
| 6.1.2 Composition variability | 152 | ||
| 6.1.3 Structure features | 153 | ||
| 6.2 REMOVAL OF PHOSPHATES BY LDH | 154 | ||
| 6.2.1 Inorganic phosphate speciation | 154 | ||
| 6.2.2 Removal isotherms | 154 | ||
| 6.2.3 Removal kinetics | 155 | ||
| 6.2.4 Effect of absorbent composition | 156 | ||
| 6.2.5 Effect of the phosphate concentration | 157 | ||
| 6.3 REMOVAL MECHANISM\r | 157 | ||
| 6.3.1 Ion concentrations in treated solutions and Ca/P ratioin the collected solids | 157 | ||
| 6.3.2 Formation of Ca-P precipitate | 159 | ||
| 6.3.3 Dissolution-precipitation processes | 160 | ||
| 6.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND PERSPECTIVES | 162 | ||
| REFERENCES | 163 | ||
| Chapter 7:\rRecycling Mg(OH)2 nanoadsorbents during the removal of heavy metals from wastewater using Cr(VI) as an example | 167 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 167 | ||
| 7.1.1 Environmental applications of Mg(OH) | 168 | ||
| 7.1.2 The risks of Cr(VI) and treatment of Cr(VI)-containing \rwastewater | 168 | ||
| 7.1.2.1 Cr removal technologies | 168 | ||
| 7.1.2.2 Cr adsorption technologies | 169 | ||
| 7.1.3 Recycling nanoadsorbents and the pre-concentration of heavy metals | 170 | ||
| 7.2 RECYCLING Mg(OH)2 NANO ADSORBENT DURINGTREATMENT OF LOW CONCENTRATION OF Cr(VI) | 171 | ||
| 7.2.1 Adsorption of Cr(VI) onto Mg(OH)2 nanoparticles | 172 | ||
| 7.2.2 Desorption and enrichment of Cr(VI) | 173 | ||
| 7.2.3 Recycle loop of the Mg(OH)2 nanoadsorbent | 174 | ||
| 7.3 TREATMENT OF Cr(VI)-CONTAINING Mg(OH)2 \rNANOWASTE | 176 | ||
| 7.3.1 Cr(VI)-containing Mg(OH)2 nanowaste generated bythe chlorate industry | 176 | ||
| 7.3.2 Treatment of Mg(OH)2 nanowaste by mineralizer | 177 | ||
| 7.3.3 Pilotscale treatment of nanowaste in chlorate plant | 181 | ||
| 7.4 CONCLUSIONS | 181 | ||
| REFERENCES | 182 | ||
| Chapter 8:\rVisible-light active doped titania for water purification: nitrogen and silver doping | 187 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 187 | ||
| 8.2 OVERVIEW OF VISIBLE LIGHT ACTIVITY BY DOPING TiO2 | 188 | ||
| 8.2.1 Nitrogen doping | 188 | ||
| 8.2.2 Silver doping | 190 | ||
| 8.3 DOPED TiO2 AND WATER RECLAMATION | 191 | ||
| 8.3.1 Nitrogen-doped TiO2 | 191 | ||
| 8.3.1.1 Photodegradation of dyes | 191 | ||
| 8.3.1.2 Phenolic compounds | 195 | ||
| 8.3.1.3 Other organic water contaminants | 197 | ||
| 8.3.2 Silver-doped TiO2 | 198 | ||
| 8.3.2.1 Photodegradation of dyes | 198 | ||
| 8.3.2.2 Other prominent water contaminants | 199 | ||
| 8.4 CO-DOPING WITH METAL/NON-METAL | 199 | ||
| 8.5 SUMMARY | 200 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 202 | ||
| REFERENCES | 202 | ||
| Chapter 9:\rPd nanocatalysts for PCB removal | 207 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 207 | ||
| 9.2 REMEDIATION OF PCBs FROM THE ENVIRONMENT | 208 | ||
| 9.3 DEHALOGENATION REACTIONS BY PALLADIUM (NANO-)CATALYSIS | 209 | ||
| 9.3.1 Production and supports for Pd nanoparticles | 210 | ||
| 9.3.2 Hydrogen donors for dehalogenation reactions | 211 | ||
| 9.3.3 Reaction kinetics and selectivity | 213 | ||
| 9.3.4 Solvents and additives in Pd catalysis | 215 | ||
| 9.4 PCB DEGRADATION BY BIMETALLIC Pd CATALYSTS | 216 | ||
| 9.5 APPLICATIONS OF Pd NANOPARTICLES FOR PCB TREATMENT\r | 218 | ||
| 9.5.1 Treatment of PCBs spread in the environment | 218 | ||
| 9.5.2 Treatment of PCB containing sources | 220 | ||
| 9.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES | 221 | ||
| REFERENCES | 223 | ||
| Chapter 10:\rActivated carbon-supported palladized iron nanoparticles: applications to contaminated site remediation | 228 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 229 | ||
| 10.1.1 Physical capping approaches | 229 | ||
| 10.1.2 Chemical dechlorination approaches | 230 | ||
| 10.1.3 Concept of reactive activated carbon (RAC) | 231 | ||
| 10.2 SYNTHESIS OF REACTIVE ACTIVATED CARBON | 232 | ||
| 10.2.1 Impregnation of GAC with Fe/Pd particles | 232 | ||
| 10.2.2 Physical and chemical properties of RAC | 234 | ||
| 10.2.3 Control of Fe and Pd contents | 237 | ||
| 10.3 WORKING MECHANISMS OF RAC | 237 | ||
| 10.3.1 Adsorption and dechlorination of PCBs | 238 | ||
| 10.3.2 Catalytic role of palladium | 240 | ||
| 10.3.3 Dependency of RAC performance on pH | 240 | ||
| 10.4 TREATMENT CAPACITY AND LONGEVITY | 242 | ||
| 10.4.1 Dechlorination capacity | 242 | ||
| 10.4.2 Short term treatability | 244 | ||
| 10.4.3 Long term ageing and oxidation | 244 | ||
| 10.5 REACTVITIY OF RAC WITH PCBs | 246 | ||
| 10.5.1 Mono PCB congeners | 246 | ||
| 10.5.2 Tri-chlorinated biphenyl | 248 | ||
| 10.5.3 Higher PCB congeners | 248 | ||
| 10.6 APPLICATION PROSPECTS\r | 250 | ||
| 10.6.1 Reactive capping barrier concept | 250 | ||
| 10.6.2 Challenges | 251 | ||
| 10.6.3 Applications | 252 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 252 | ||
| REFERENCES | 253 | ||
| Chapter 11:\rMicrobial manufactured silver nanoparticles for water disinfection | 256 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 256 | ||
| 11.2 THE MICROBIAL PRODUCTION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES | 257 | ||
| 11.2.1 The basic principles | 257 | ||
| 11.2.2 Reduction mechanism | 261 | ||
| 11.2.2.1 Enzymatic reduction | 261 | ||
| 11.2.2.2 Non-enzymatic reduction | 261 | ||
| 11.2.3 The use of entire cells vs. cell extracts | 262 | ||
| 11.3 APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL MANUFACTURED SILVER NANOPARTICLES\r | 264 | ||
| 11.3.1 Antimicrobial activity | 264 | ||
| 11.3.1.1 General introduction on antimicrobial activity | 264 | ||
| 11.3.1.2 Quantification of antimicrobial activity | 264 | ||
| 11.3.1.3 Antimicrobial mechanism of microbial manufactured nanoparticles | 268 | ||
| 11.3.1.4 Microbial vs. chemical manufactured nanosilver | 268 | ||
| 11.3.2 Microbial manufactured silver nanoparticles for water disinfection | 269 | ||
| 11.3.3 Other applications of microbial manufactured silver nanoparticles | 270 | ||
| 11.3.4 Silver nanoparticle toxicity | 271 | ||
| 11.3.5 Fate of microbial manufactured silver nanoparticles: legislation and regulation | 272 | ||
| 11.4 CONCLUSIONS | 273 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 273 | ||
| REFERENCES | 273 | ||
| Chapter 12:\rElectrospun nanofibrous membranes for water treatment applications | 280 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 280 | ||
| 12.2 ELECTROSPINNING TECHNIQUES\r | 281 | ||
| 12.2.1 Electrospinning processes | 281 | ||
| 12.2.2 Factors affecting the electrospinning process | 282 | ||
| 12.3 FUNCTIONALIZED NANOFIBERS | 283 | ||
| 12.3.1 Physical coating | 283 | ||
| 12.3.2 Plasma treatment | 284 | ||
| 12.3.3 Wet chemical method | 284 | ||
| 12.3.4 Surface graft polymerization | 284 | ||
| 12.3.5 Co-electrospinning of surface active agents and polymers | 285 | ||
| 12.4 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSPUN POLYMERIC NANOFIBERS IN THE WATER INDUSTRY\r | 285 | ||
| 12.4.1 Microfiltration membranes | 285 | ||
| 12.4.2 Ultrafiltration membranes | 286 | ||
| 12.4.3 Antimicrobial membranes | 287 | ||
| 12.4.4 Antifouling membranes | 288 | ||
| 12.4.5 Affinity membranes | 289 | ||
| 12.5 MULTIFUNCTIONAL COMPOSITE NANOFIBROUS MEMBRANES | 290 | ||
| 12.6 CONCLUSIONS | 291 | ||
| REFERENCES | 291 | ||
| Chapter 13:\rPorous ceramic and metallic microreactors | 297 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 297 | ||
| 13.2 POROUS CERAMIC MESOREACTORS\r | 298 | ||
| 13.2.1 Reactor concept | 298 | ||
| 13.2.2 Reactor preparation | 299 | ||
| 13.2.3 Reactor operation | 301 | ||
| 13.3 POROUS METALLIC MICROREACTORS\r | 303 | ||
| 13.3.1 Reactor concept | 303 | ||
| 13.3.2 Reactor preparation | 304 | ||
| 13.3.3 Reactor operation | 306 | ||
| 13.4 POROUS CERAMIC PHOTOCATALYTIC MICROREACTOR\r | 309 | ||
| 13.4.1 Reactor concept | 309 | ||
| 13.4.2 Reactor preparation | 310 | ||
| 13.4.3 Reactor operation | 312 | ||
| 13.5 CONCLUSIONS | 313 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 313 | ||
| REFERENCES | 313 | ||
| Chapter 14:\rBiomimetic membranes for water separation applications | 317 | ||
| 14.1 INTRODUCTION | 317 | ||
| 14.2 FORWARD OSMOSIS MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY | 320 | ||
| 14.3 NANOSCALE WATER CONDUITS | 322 | ||
| 14.4 AQUAPORINS: NANO-SCALE WATER CONDUITS | 326 | ||
| 14.5 DESIGNING BIOMIMETIC MEMBRANES | 327 | ||
| REFERENCES | 329 | ||
| Chapter 15:\rFunctionalised graphene: a novel platform for biosensors | 335 | ||
| 15.1 INTRODUCTION | 335 | ||
| 15.2 SYNTHESIS AND FUNCTIONALISATION OF GRAPHENE | 338 | ||
| 15.3 GRAPHENE-BASED GAS SENSORS | 341 | ||
| 15.4 GRAPHENE-BASED BIOSENSORS | 342 | ||
| 15.5 FUTURE OUTLOOK | 347 | ||
| REFERENCES | 348 | ||
| Chapter 16:\rNanoparticle based sensors for water quality testing | 352 | ||
| 16.1 INTRODUCTION | 352 | ||
| 16.2 OPTICAL SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION | 352 | ||
| 16.2.1 Quantum dot nanomaterials | 353 | ||
| 16.2.2 Silica and polymeric nanomaterials | 355 | ||
| 16.2.3 Noble metal nanomaterials | 356 | ||
| 16.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION | 358 | ||
| 16.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK | 364 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 364 | ||
| REFERENCES | 364 | ||
| Chapter 17:\rGreen synthesis of nanoparticles and nanomaterials | 369 | ||
| 17.1 INTRODUCTION\r | 369 | ||
| 17.1.1 Importance of nanomaterials/nanoparticles | 369 | ||
| 17.1.2 Composition of nanomaterials/nanoparticles | 369 | ||
| 17.1.3 Nanomaterials/nanoparticle synthesis | 371 | ||
| 17.2 MAGNETIC NANOPARTICLES | 374 | ||
| 17.2.1 Liquid phase methods | 376 | ||
| 17.2.1.1 Iron oxide particles | 376 | ||
| 17.2.1.2 Bimetallic nanoparticles | 377 | ||
| 17.2.1.3 Spinel ferrites | 378 | ||
| 17.2.1.4 Hydroxyapatites | 379 | ||
| 17.2.2 Gas phase methods | 380 | ||
| 17.2.2.1 Carbonaceous nanoparticles | 380 | ||
| 17.2.2.2 Spinels | 381 | ||
| 17.2.2.3 Nanocomposites | 382 | ||
| 17.3 CLAY SUPPORTED NANOPARTICLES | 384 | ||
| 17.4 GREEN SYNTHESIS ROUTES\r | 388 | ||
| 17.4.1 Green reducing agents | 388 | ||
| 17.4.2 Biocatalysis | 392 | ||
| 17.5 OUTLOOK | 394 | ||
| REFERENCES | 395 | ||
| Chapter 18:\rPlant-based nanoparticle manufacturing | 403 | ||
| 18.1 INTRODUCTION | 403 | ||
| 18.2 FORMATION OF METALLIC NPs BY PLANT EXTRACTS\r | 404 | ||
| 18.2.1 Formation of Ag NPs by leaf extract | 404 | ||
| 18.2.2 Formation of Ag NPs by other plant extracts | 408 | ||
| 18.2.2.1 Callus extracts | 408 | ||
| 18.2.2.2 Seed extracts | 409 | ||
| 18.2.2.3 Fruit extracts | 409 | ||
| 18.2.2.4 Rhizome extracts | 410 | ||
| 18.2.3 Formation of Au NPs by plant leaf extracts | 410 | ||
| 18.2.3.1 Effect of pH | 411 | ||
| 18.2.3.2 Effect of the reaction temperature | 411 | ||
| 18.2.3.3 Effect of leaf extracts concentration | 412 | ||
| 18.2.3.4 Effect of boiling and drying of the extracts | 412 | ||
| 18.2.4 Formation of Au NPs by seeds, fruits, flowers, and rhizomes | 413 | ||
| 18.2.5 Formation of other NPs by plant extracts | 414 | ||
| 18.2.5.1 Formation of Cu NPs | 414 | ||
| 18.2.5.2 Formation of Pd NPs | 414 | ||
| 18.2.5.3 Formation of Pt NPs | 415 | ||
| 18.2.5.4 Formation of Fe NPs | 415 | ||
| 18.2.5.5 Formation of In2O3 and TiO2 NPs | 416 | ||
| 18.2.5.6 Formation of bimetallic NPs | 416 | ||
| 18.3 FORMATION OF METAL NPs BY INTACT PLANTS\r | 416 | ||
| 18.3.1 Formation of metal NPs by living plants | 416 | ||
| 18.3.2 Formation of metal NPs by plant biomass | 418 | ||
| 18.4 CONCLUSIONS | 421 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 421 | ||
| REFERENCES | 422 | ||
| Index | 430 |