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Abstract
In the developed world, the connection between water, hygiene and health is taken for granted. However, for the less fortunate majority, access to potable water is non-existent and remains a daily struggle. Bacteria, viruses and parasites in contaminated water cause water borne disease. Of concern are the so-called new emerging pathogens, contributing to water borne disease, one of the biggest human tragedies, killing more than 5 million people each year. About 2.3 billion people suffer from diseases linked to contaminated water and some 6,000 people die daily as a result of this. Some 60% of all infant mortality worldwide is linked to water-related infectious and parasitic diseases. Treating water before use can eliminate most of these waterborne pathogens. The essential starting point is knowledge of the disease-causing organisms, the detection techniques, and the epidemiology, which is the focus of this book. Microbial Waterborne Pathogens provides up-to-date coverage of waterborne microbial pathogens including traditional and emerging pathogens and the latest molecular detection techniques. The link between climate and disease is covered in the book and indicates future approaches to dealing with this important area as we face the effects of global climate change All the existing and emerging pathogens including bacteria, viruses and protozoa are reviewed. The characteristics of each organism are discussed in detail as well as their epidemiology. Methods for the detection of these pathogens, traditional and new are presented. Microbial Waterborne Pathogens provides students, academics and practitioners with a complete reference book on the microbiological quality and safety of potable water.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contents | vi | ||
| Preface | x | ||
| Contributors | xii | ||
| 1 Microbial agents associated with waterborne diseases | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Waterborne diseases and aetiologic agents | 2 | ||
| 1.3 Bacterial enteropathogens | 5 | ||
| 1.3.1 Salmonella–Shigella | 5 | ||
| 1.3.2 Campylobacter | 5 | ||
| 1.3.3 E. coli O157: H7 | 6 | ||
| 1.3.4 Yersinia enterocolitica | 7 | ||
| 1.3.5 Vibrio cholerae | 8 | ||
| 1.4 Opportunistic pathogens that grow in water supplies | 9 | ||
| 1.4.1 Legionella | 10 | ||
| 1.4.2 Pseudomonas aeruginosa | 13 | ||
| 1.4.3 Aeromonas | 14 | ||
| 1.4.4 Non-tuberculosis mycobacteria (NTMS) | 16 | ||
| 1.5 Helicobacter pylori | 19 | ||
| 1.6 Pathogenic protozoa | 20 | ||
| 1.6.1 Giardia, Cryptosporidium | 20 | ||
| 1.6.2 Cyclospora, Isospora, Microsporidia | 23 | ||
| 1.7 Viral pathogens | 24 | ||
| 1.7.1 Hepatitis | 25 | ||
| 1.7.2 Viral gastroenteritis | 26 | ||
| 1.7.3 Other candidate viruses | 28 | ||
| 1.7.4 Factors affecting viral infections | 28 | ||
| 1.8 Gastroenteritis of undetermined aetiology | 29 | ||
| 1.9 Endemic gastroenteritis | 29 | ||
| 1.10 Pathogenicity and at increased risk populations | 31 | ||
| 1.11 Conclusion | 33 | ||
| 2 Emerging infectious waterborne diseases: bacterial agents | 55 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 55 | ||
| 2.2 Specific emerging waterborne infectious diseases caused by bacterial infection | 60 | ||
| 2.2.1 Campylobacteriosis | 60 | ||
| 2.2.2 Cholera | 61 | ||
| 2.2.3 Gastritis and ulcer diseases | 62 | ||
| 2.2.4 Haemorrhagic colitis and related complications | 63 | ||
| 2.2.5 Legionellosis | 65 | ||
| 2.2.6 Shigellosis | 67 | ||
| 2.2.7 Pulmonary diseases | 67 | ||
| 2.2.8 Dermatitis/folliculitis | 68 | ||
| 3 Emerging infectious waterborne diseases: viral agents | 78 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 78 | ||
| 3.2 Specific emerging waterborne infectious diseases caused by viral infection | 79 | ||
| 3.2.1 Aseptic meningitis and various acute Enterovirus syndromes | 79 | ||
| 3.2.2 Astrovirus enteritis | 82 | ||
| 3.2.3 Calicivirus enteritis | 83 | ||
| 3.2.4 Hepatitis | 84 | ||
| 4 Emerging infectious waterborne diseases: protozoan agents | 89 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 89 | ||
| 4.2 Specific emerging waterborne infectious diseases caused by protozoan agents | 92 | ||
| 4.2.1 Cryptosporidiosis | 92 | ||
| 4.2.2 Cyclosporiasis | 92 | ||
| 4.2.3 Microsporidia | 93 | ||
| 4.2.4 Giardiasis | 94 | ||
| 4.2.5 Toxoplasmosis | 94 | ||
| 4.2.6 Amoebic encephalitis and keratitis | 95 | ||
| 4.2.7 Isosporiasis | 96 | ||
| 4.3 Conclusions | 96 | ||
| 5 Legionella | 100 | ||
| 5.1 The biology | 100 | ||
| 5.1.1 Cell biology of Legionella | 100 | ||
| 5.1.2 Parasitology of Legionella | 104 | ||
| 5.2 Legionellosis | 109 | ||
| 5.2.1 Etiology and epidemiology | 109 | ||
| 5.2.2 Pathogenicity | 112 | ||
| 5.2.3 Clinical diagnosis and therapeutics | 114 | ||
| 5.3 Reducing the risk of legionellosis | 117 | ||
| 5.3.1 Global Code of Practice | 118 | ||
| 5.3.2 Risk Assessment | 121 | ||
| 5.3.3 Pathogen analysis | 124 | ||
| 5.3.4 Cleaning and disinfection | 128 | ||
| 5.3.5 Monitoring and control | 128 | ||
| 5.4 Conclusions | 131 | ||
| 6 The effect of climate change on waterborne disease | 143 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 143 | ||
| 6.2 Climatic impacts on waterborne disease | 145 | ||
| 6.2.1 Climate sensitive waterborne diseases | 145 | ||
| 6.2.2 Impact of extreme events on waterborne disease | 146 | ||
| 6.3 Cholera | 148 | ||
| 6.3.1 Cholera: a case for ecological and climate studies | 148 | ||
| 6.3.2 Modelling of cholera dynamics as a function of climate variability | 149 | ||
| 6.4 El Niño | 149 | ||
| 6.5 Knowledge gaps and directions for future research | 150 | ||
| 7 Emerging microbiological detection techniques | 155 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 155 | ||
| 7.2 Traditional versus emerging detection techniques | 156 | ||
| 7.3 Molecular methodologies for detection of pathogenic micro-organisms | 157 | ||
| 7.3.1 Immunological methods | 157 | ||
| 7.3.2 Nucleic acid-based methods | 160 | ||
| 7.3.3 Biosensors and microarray detection | 165 | ||
| 7.4 Detection of enteric microbial pathogens in water | 166 | ||
| 7.4.1 Enteric bacteria | 166 | ||
| 7.4.2 Enteric parasitic protozoa | 169 | ||
| 7.4.3 Enteric viruses | 171 | ||
| 7.5 Molecular methodologies for microbial source tracking (MST) | 173 | ||
| 7.6 Summary and conclusions | 175 | ||
| 8 Future needs and priorities | 187 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 187 | ||
| 8.2 Risk assessment | 189 | ||
| 8.3 The pathogens | 191 | ||
| 8.4 The phenomenon of “new disease” | 196 | ||
| 8.5 Biofilms | 197 | ||
| 8.6 Chemicals | 198 | ||
| 8.7 Gene arrays | 200 | ||
| 8.8 Future needs and priorities – conclusion | 200 | ||
| 9 Converting hindsight into foresight – understanding the causes of waterborne outbreaks | 205 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 205 | ||
| 9.2 Evidence from case studies | 206 | ||
| 9.3 Recurring themes | 211 | ||
| 9.3.1 Pathogens pose the greatest risk to drinking water safety | 211 | ||
| 9.3.2 Robust multiple barriers are essential | 212 | ||
| 9.3.3 Trouble is preceded by change | 212 | ||
| 9.3.4 Operators must be capable and responsive | 213 | ||
| 9.3.5 Drinking water professionals must be accountable | 214 | ||
| 9.3.6 Risk management – making sensible decisions under uncertainty | 214 | ||
| 9.4 Summary | 215 | ||
| Index | 219 |