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Book Details
Abstract
Water services include water supply, sewerage and stormwater drainage. The facilities needed for these services are pipelines, reservoirs and treatment works; but the service goes beyond the infrastructure. It includes economics, billing, and business management. Although these services exist in every city, being advanced by the growing use of automation and information technology, costs are also increasing without many consumers seeing increased benefits. Customer service is therefore becoming important to the industry. Water Services Management is intended to educate engineers to manage and improve water services, rather than simply designing and constructing treatment works and distribution systems. The text covers water supply and drainage from the hydraulic and economic points of view, and while design and construction practices are reviewed, the focus of the book is on improving existing systems to turn the emerging industry into an attractive business. Topics covered include: Potable water supply, sewerage and stormwater drainage. Hydraulic management: storage, peak flow attenuation and pumping. Water quality: standards, pollution control and treatment. Infrastructure management: rehabilitation, reconstruction, upgrading and maintenance. Economic efficiency: asset management, privatization, and risk analysis. Improving economic viability via efficient use of energy and construction project management. Characteristics encountered in developing countries are also considered, including: Low cost sanitation, water supply standards and off-grid energy sources. Capacity building and appropriate technologies. Financing, operation and benchmarking.
Table of Contents
Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
---|---|---|---|
Contents | 6 | ||
Preface | 16 | ||
Index | 424 | ||
1.0 Water sources and quality | 20 | ||
1.1\tAVAILABILITY OF FRESH WATER | 20 | ||
1.1.1\tSurface water | 21 | ||
1.1.2\tGroundwater | 24 | ||
1.1.2.1\tSprings | 25 | ||
1.1.2.2\tWells and boreholes | 25 | ||
1.1.2.3\tHand-dug wells | 25 | ||
1.1.2.4\tTube wells | 27 | ||
1.1.2.5\tBoreholes | 27 | ||
1.1.3\tSiting of wells and boreholes | 27 | ||
1.1.4\tDetermination of yield | 28 | ||
1.2\tRAINWATER | 29 | ||
1.3\tWASTEWATER AND RECYCLING | 30 | ||
1.4\tSEAWATER OR SALINE WATER | 31 | ||
1.5\tWATER POLLUTION | 31 | ||
1.5.1 Protection of public health | 32 | ||
1.5.2\tPollution risk assessment and management | 32 | ||
1.6\tINTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND CRITERIA | 33 | ||
1.6.1\tMicrobiological determinants | 33 | ||
1.6.2\tChemical and physical determinants | 34 | ||
1.6.3\tOrganic pollution | 36 | ||
1.6.4\tStability of water supplies | 37 | ||
1.7 WATER TREATMENT | 37 | ||
1.8\tREFERENCES | 41 | ||
2.0 Urban water supply | 42 | ||
2.1 WATER USE | 42 | ||
2.1.1\tVolumes required | 43 | ||
2.1.2\tPlanning basis | 44 | ||
2.1.3\tPeak factors | 47 | ||
2.1.4\tPressure requirements | 48 | ||
2.2\tRESERVOIR STORAGE REQUIREMENTS | 49 | ||
2.2.1\tElevated storage and pumps | 49 | ||
2.2.2 Balancing volume | 50 | ||
2.2.3\tOther storage reservoirs | 50 | ||
2.3\tPIPE FLUID MECHANICS | 51 | ||
2.3.1\tThe fundamental equations of fluid flow | 52 | ||
2.4\tFLOW HEAD LOSS RELATIONSHIPS | 53 | ||
2.4.1\tEmpirical flow formulae | 53 | ||
2.4.2\tRational flow formulae | 54 | ||
2.5 WATER HAMMER AND FLOW CONTROL | 58 | ||
2.5.1\tValves and other fittings | 60 | ||
2.6\tPIPELINE OPTIMISATION | 61 | ||
2.7\tOPTIMUM RESERVOIR SIZES | 64 | ||
2.8\tPUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVES | 66 | ||
REFERENCES | 66 | ||
3.0 Water demand management and loss control | 68 | ||
3.1\tCONTROLLING WATER USE | 68 | ||
3.2\tECONOMIC THEORY OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND | 71 | ||
3.2.1\tEffect of metering | 73 | ||
3.2.2\tManagement by use of tariffs | 74 | ||
3.3\tTIMING | 76 | ||
3.3.1\tLong-term (planning and design) | 77 | ||
3.3.2\tOperational time-frame | 78 | ||
3.3.3\tCrisis management | 79 | ||
3.3.3.1\tPenalties or punitive tariffs | 80 | ||
3.3.3.2\tPurchase system | 80 | ||
3.3.3.3\tShortfall surcharge | 80 | ||
3.3.4\tNotes on management by use of tariffs | 80 | ||
3.4\tTHE COST OF WATER | 81 | ||
3.4.1\tFuture trends | 86 | ||
3.5\tVALUE OF WATER | 86 | ||
3.6\tLOSS CONTROL | 87 | ||
3.7\tWATER HARVESTING | 90 | ||
REFERENCES | 90 | ||
4.0 Sewerage | 92 | ||
4.1\tFLOW IN CIRCULAR DRAINS | 92 | ||
4.1.1\tManning equation | 92 | ||
4.1.2\tNon-circular cross sections | 93 | ||
4.1.3\tUniform flow in part-full circular pipes | 94 | ||
4.2\tDRAINAGE NETWORK OPTIMISATION | 96 | ||
4.2.1\tThe variables | 96 | ||
4.2.2\tDynamic programming for optimising compound pipes | 99 | ||
4.3\tDESIGN OF SEWERS | 102 | ||
4.3.1\tSewer flows | 104 | ||
4.3.2\tConstruction | 104 | ||
4.3.3\tAccess and ventilation | 107 | ||
4.3.4\tComputer Design and Grading | 108 | ||
REFERENCES | 110 | ||
5.0 Sewer leakage and rehabilitation | 111 | ||
5.1\tSTORMWATER AND GROUNDWATER INGRESS | 111 | ||
5.2\tPROBLEMS IN WASTE WATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS | 112 | ||
5.3\tDETERMINING EXTRANEOUS FLOWS | 113 | ||
5.3.1\tInfiltration into sewers | 113 | ||
5.3.2\tInflow into sewers | 114 | ||
5.3.3\tDetermination of ingress events | 114 | ||
5.4\tIMPACT OF STORMWATER AND GROUNDWATER INGRESS | 116 | ||
5.4.1\tWastewater Treatment Works (WWTW) | 116 | ||
5.5\tREDUCING STORMWATER INFLOW | 119 | ||
5.5.1\tLocal structure improvements | 119 | ||
5.5.2\tEffective utilisation of existing storage in sewerage systems | 119 | ||
5.5.3\tPro-active maintenance | 120 | ||
5.5.4\tOverflows or redirection of flows within a system | 120 | ||
5.5.5\tHolding ponds | 120 | ||
5.5.6\tEnhancement of sewer network | 120 | ||
5.6\tANCILLARY SYSTEMS | 121 | ||
5.6.1\tPumping systems | 121 | ||
5.6.2\tVacuum systems | 121 | ||
5.6.3\tProtective structures | 122 | ||
5.6.4\tPurchase of land/properties | 122 | ||
5.7 MANAGEMENT OF INGRESS | 123 | ||
5.7.1 Preventative measures | 124 | ||
5.7.2\tRemedial measures | 125 | ||
5.8\tALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR REMEDIATION | 125 | ||
5.8.1\tRehabilitation methods | 125 | ||
5.8.1.1\tNonstructural lining | 125 | ||
5.8.1.2\tStructural lining | 126 | ||
5.8.2\tReplacement methods | 127 | ||
5.9\tBENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS | 130 | ||
5.9.1\tCost-effectiveness analysis | 130 | ||
5.10\tSEWER MAINTENANCE | 132 | ||
5.10.1\tPreliminary analysis | 132 | ||
5.10.2 Sewer testing | 133 | ||
5.10.3\tCorrosion of sewers | 134 | ||
5.10.4\tRehabilitation of manholes and sumps | 136 | ||
5.11\tREFERENCES | 136 | ||
6.0 Alternative urban drainage systems | 138 | ||
6.1\tINTRODUCTION | 138 | ||
6.2\tDRAINAGE STREAMS | 139 | ||
6.2.1\tGrey water | 142 | ||
6.2.2\tStormwater | 142 | ||
6.2.3\tSewerage | 144 | ||
6.3\tCASE STUDY IN ALEXANDRA TOWNSHIP | 146 | ||
6.4\tSYSTEM MASS BALANCES | 147 | ||
6.5\tDOMESTIC MASS BALANCE | 147 | ||
6.6\tREFERENCES | 149 | ||
7.0 Wastewater treatment | 150 | ||
7.1\tSEWAGE QUALITY | 150 | ||
7.2\tTREATMENT PROCESSES | 152 | ||
7.3\tAPPROPRIATE SANITATION | 158 | ||
7.4\tCATEGORIES OF SANITATION SYSTEMS | 159 | ||
7.4.1\tGroup 1: No water added – Requiring conveyance for treatment at central works | 159 | ||
7.4.1.1\tChemical toilets | 159 | ||
7.4.2\tGroup 2: No water added – no conveyance (treatment or partial treatment on site before disposal) | 161 | ||
7.4.2.1\tVentilated improved pit (VIP) toilet | 161 | ||
7.4.2.2\tVentilated improved double-pit (VIDP) toilet | 162 | ||
7.4.2.3\tVentilated vault (VV) toilets | 163 | ||
7.4.2.4\tContinuous composting (CC) toilets | 163 | ||
7.4.3\tGroup 3: Water added – requiring conveyance (treatment at a central works) | 164 | ||
7.4.3.1\tFull water-borne sanitation | 164 | ||
7.4.3.2\tFlushing toilet with conservancy tank | 165 | ||
7.4.3.3\tSettled sewage systems | 165 | ||
7.4.4\tGroup 4: Water added – no conveyance (treatment or partial treatment on-site before disposal) | 166 | ||
7.4.4.1\tFlushing toilet with septic tank and subsurface soil absorption system | 167 | ||
7.4.4.2\tLow-flow on-site sanitation systems (LOFLOs) | 167 | ||
7.5\tFACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF SANITATION | 169 | ||
7.6\tREFERENCES | 174 | ||
8.0 Stormwater drainage | 176 | ||
8.1\tINTRODUCTION | 176 | ||
8.2\tTHE RATIONAL METHOD | 177 | ||
8.3\tLLOYD-DAVIES METHOD | 182 | ||
8.4 STEP METHOD | 183 | ||
8.5\tTIME-AREA DIAGRAM AND ISOCHRONAL METHODS | 186 | ||
8.6\tTANGENT METHOD AND MODIFICATIONS | 188 | ||
8.7\tKINEMATIC METHOD | 191 | ||
8.7.1\tTime of concentration for a plain | 192 | ||
REFERENCES | 194 | ||
9.1\tDESIGN ALTERNATIVES | 195 | ||
9.2\tSTORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES | 197 | ||
9.2.1\tSafety factors | 199 | ||
9.3\tDETENTION AND RETENTION PONDS | 200 | ||
9.4 PERCOLATION BASINS | 205 | ||
9.4.1\tEffect of holding on water quality | 206 | ||
9.4.2\tOn-site detention | 206 | ||
9.5\tSTRUCTURES TO CONTAIN RUNOFF | 207 | ||
9.5.1\tParking-lot storage | 207 | ||
9.5.2\tRooftop detention | 207 | ||
9.5.3 Combined sewers | 207 | ||
9.6\tOVERLAND AND CHANNEL RETARDATION | 208 | ||
9.6.1\tDual drainage | 209 | ||
9.7\tFLOOD MANAGEMENT | 209 | ||
9.8 RESERVOIR ROUTING METHODS | 214 | ||
9.9\tFLOOD RISK ANALYSIS | 217 | ||
9.10\tFLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT | 218 | ||
9.10.1\tHazards associated with flooding | 218 | ||
9.11\tINTEGRATED FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT | 220 | ||
9.11.1\tChannel confinement | 221 | ||
9.11.2\tAnti-flooding devices | 222 | ||
REFERENCES | 222 | ||
10.0 Drainage structures | 224 | ||
10.1 HYDRAULICS OF BRIDGES | 224 | ||
10.1.1\tFlow through gap | 226 | ||
10.1.2 Surface profile | 227 | ||
10.1.3 Drop in water level | 233 | ||
10.1.4\tComplex structures | 235 | ||
10.1.5\tFlow over an embankment | 235 | ||
10.1.6\tInundation of bridge | 237 | ||
10.1.7\tErosion due to overflow | 238 | ||
10.2\tCULVERT HYDRAULICS | 238 | ||
10.2.1\tEconomic design | 238 | ||
10.2.2\tPrinciple of controls | 239 | ||
10.2.3\tHydraulic profiles | 240 | ||
10.2.4\tInlet Design | 242 | ||
10.2.5 Inlet control equations for box culverts | 244 | ||
10.2.6 Circular pipe culverts | 245 | ||
10.2.7\tOutlet Control | 247 | ||
10.2.8 Balanced design | 248 | ||
10.3\tREFERENCES | 249 | ||
11.0 Asset management | 251 | ||
11.1 INTRODUCTION | 251 | ||
11.2 ASSETS | 252 | ||
11.3\tBENEFITS OF ASSET MANAGEMENT | 254 | ||
11.4\tBEST PRACTICE | 255 | ||
11.4.1\tReviews of world practices | 256 | ||
11.4.2 United Kingdom | 258 | ||
11.4.3 Australia and New Zealand | 260 | ||
11.4.3.1\tThe Australian asset management (AM) process | 260 | ||
11.4.3.2\tThe New Zealand asset management (AM) process | 261 | ||
11.5\tDATA MANAGEMENT | 264 | ||
11.6\tMETHODOLOGY FOR AMPS | 264 | ||
11.6.1 Information systems | 265 | ||
11.6.2 Asset management plans | 266 | ||
11.6.2.1\tWhat should a typical Asset Management Plan comprise? | 266 | ||
11.6.2.2\tWhat should a typical Asset Management Plan deal with? | 266 | ||
11.6.3\tBenefits from implementing an Asset Management programme | 268 | ||
11.6.4\tTypes of asset management plans | 268 | ||
11.7\tLIFE CYCLE ASSET MANAGEMENT | 270 | ||
11.7.1 \tLife cycle costing | 271 | ||
11.7.2\tThe life of a works | 273 | ||
11.7.3\tEconomic evaluation | 274 | ||
11.8 ASSET MANAGEMENT REGISTERS | 276 | ||
11.8.1\tNational standard for asset registers | 276 | ||
11.8.2\tRequirements of an asset register | 277 | ||
11.8.3\tComponents of a national standard for asset registers | 277 | ||
11.8.4\tSelection of assets on register | 278 | ||
11.8.5\tMinimum set of information to be recorded | 278 | ||
11.8.6\tRecording the changes to assets | 279 | ||
11.8.7\tCapturing the data | 280 | ||
11.9\tSYSTEM DEFINITION | 280 | ||
11.9.1\tAsset identification and classification | 281 | ||
11.10\tREFERENCES | 281 | ||
12.0 Privatisation | 283 | ||
12.1\tINTRODUCTION | 283 | ||
12.2\tECONOMIC REFORM | 286 | ||
12.3\tCONCESSIONS | 287 | ||
12.3.1\tDefinition of a concessionary contract | 288 | ||
12.4\tFORMS OF PARTNERSHIP EVALUATED | 291 | ||
12.4.1\tFull Privatisation | 291 | ||
12.4.2\tConcession | 291 | ||
12.4.3\tLease Contract | 292 | ||
12.4.4\tManagement Contract | 292 | ||
12.4.5\tService Contract | 292 | ||
12.4.6\tCorporatisation | 292 | ||
12.4.7\tPublic-Public Partnerships | 293 | ||
12.4.8\tBOOT and BOT Projects | 293 | ||
12.4.9\tMunicipal Debt Issuance | 294 | ||
12.4.10 Private Consultants | 294 | ||
12.5\tMUNICIPAL CHARACTERISTICS | 294 | ||
12.6\tPRIVATE AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONAL ROLES | 296 | ||
12.6.1\tCase study – Balfour municipality | 297 | ||
12.6.2\tAnalysis of municipal situation | 297 | ||
12.6.3\tImmediate capital expenditure requirements | 298 | ||
12.6.4\tAge, condition, value relationship of existing assets | 299 | ||
12.6.5\tCapital available | 299 | ||
12.6.6\tMunicipal income and expenses | 301 | ||
12.6.7\tCost of service provision and level of cost recovery | 301 | ||
12.6.8\tWater and sanitation staff | 302 | ||
12.6.9 System efficiency, quality and service | 302 | ||
12.6.10 Results of analysis | 303 | ||
12.7\tSELECTION OF BEST FORM OF PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP | 304 | ||
12.8\tREFERENCES | 305 | ||
13.0 Probability and risk | 307 | ||
13.1\tHYDROLOGICAL UNCERTAINTY | 307 | ||
13.1.1\tProbability distributions | 308 | ||
13.1.2\tAnalysis of records | 312 | ||
13.1.3\tConfidence bands | 315 | ||
13.1.4\tDesign discharge | 316 | ||
13.1.5\tSpread risk | 316 | ||
13.1.5.1\tExample | 316 | ||
13.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROBABILITY, RISK AND HAZARD | 319 | ||
13.2.1\tDefinitions | 319 | ||
13.3\tSPILLWAY DESIGN FLOOD | 319 | ||
13.4 RISK FACTOR IN WATER SUPPLY | 320 | ||
13.4.1\tTechnological risks | 321 | ||
13.4.2 Financial risk | 321 | ||
13.4.3\tNatural and external factors | 321 | ||
13.5\tPLANNING TO MINIMIZE EFFECTS OF RISK | 322 | ||
13.5.1\tEconomic risk | 323 | ||
13.5.2\tEffect of uncertainty in demand estimates | 326 | ||
13.5.3\tSouth African case study | 329 | ||
13.6\tRELIABILITY OF WATER SUPPLY NETWORKS | 331 | ||
13.7\tVULNERABILITY | 332 | ||
13.8\tREFERENCES | 335 | ||
14.0 Economics and financing water services | 337 | ||
14.1 SOURCES OF FINANCE | 337 | ||
14.2\tBENEFITS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLIES | 340 | ||
14.2.1\tJustification for rural water supplies | 342 | ||
14.2.2\tEvaluation methods | 343 | ||
14.2.3 Study of water collecting time | 344 | ||
14.3\tRESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY | 344 | ||
14.3.1\tHealth benefits of water supply | 345 | ||
14.3.2\tEducational benefits | 346 | ||
14.3.2.1\tAnalysis of school results | 346 | ||
14.3.2.2\tComparison of school pass rate – 2 districts with and without water supply | 347 | ||
14.3.2.3\tEducational benefit | 348 | ||
14.4\tSTUDY OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY | 348 | ||
14.4.1\tAverage household monthly income | 349 | ||
14.4.2\tMicro survey of household economies | 349 | ||
14.5\tREFERENCES | 352 | ||
15.0 Development issues | 353 | ||
15.1 BACKGROUND | 353 | ||
15.1.1\tWater supply problems | 354 | ||
15.1.1.1\tWater has often been considered as a free resource, or a “gift from heaven” | 354 | ||
15.1.1.2\tWater is often considered as part of the national heritage | 355 | ||
15.1.1.3\tWater represents a public health issue | 355 | ||
15.1.1.4\tWater represents an important social concern | 355 | ||
15.1.2\tPopulation of developing countries | 355 | ||
15.1.3 Financial limitations | 357 | ||
15.1.4\tInstitutional problems | 359 | ||
15.2 WATER QUALITY AND HEALTH | 360 | ||
15.2.1\tWater-related diseases | 361 | ||
15.2.1.1\tWaterborne diseases | 361 | ||
15.2.1.2\tWater-washed diseases | 361 | ||
15.2.1.3\tWater-based diseases | 361 | ||
15.2.1.4\tWater-related insect vectors | 361 | ||
15.2.1.5\tShortage of water | 361 | ||
15.2.2\tWater quality standards | 363 | ||
15.3\tLEVEL OF SERVICE | 363 | ||
15.4\tALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS | 366 | ||
15.5 PROBLEMS IN SUPPLY | 367 | ||
15.5.1\tPayment | 368 | ||
15.6\tCOMMUNITY PARTICIPATION | 369 | ||
15.6.1\tAffordability | 370 | ||
15.7\tPOLICY | 371 | ||
15.8 DEVELOPING PEOPLE | 371 | ||
15.9 THE FUTURE | 374 | ||
15.10\tREFERENCES | 375 | ||
16.0 The energy factor | 376 | ||
16.1 PUMPING ENERGY | 376 | ||
16.1.1\tProgramming pumping systems | 378 | ||
16.1.2\tModel formulation | 381 | ||
16.1.3\tOperating cost components | 384 | ||
16.1.4\tPredicting consumer demands | 385 | ||
16.2\tENERGY INTENSIVE VERSUS CAPITAL INTENSIVE PROJECTS | 386 | ||
16.3\tPUMPING SEWAGE | 386 | ||
16.4\tHYDROPOWER | 387 | ||
16.5\tSOLAR-HYDRO HYBRID SYSTEM FOR RAPS | 387 | ||
16.5.1\tHybrid energy systems for rural communities | 388 | ||
16.5.2\tDevelopment of alternative energy sources | 389 | ||
16.6\tREFERENCES | 391 | ||
17.0 Project management | 392 | ||
17.1\tINTRODUCTION | 392 | ||
17.2 CONTRACT PROCEDURES AND DOCUMENTS | 393 | ||
17.3 PROJECT STAGES | 393 | ||
17.4\tMANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES | 394 | ||
17.5\tRESOURCE MANAGEMENT | 399 | ||
17.6 COMMUNICATION | 400 | ||
17.7\tQUALITY CONTROL | 400 | ||
17.8\tHAZARDS RELEVANT TO WATER SERVICES | 401 | ||
17.9\tREFERENCES | 405 | ||
18.0 Organisation and operation | 406 | ||
18.1 QUALITY CONTROL | 408 | ||
18.2\tCONTAMINATION | 409 | ||
18.3\tFINANCIAL MANAGEMENT | 410 | ||
18.4\tHUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT | 411 | ||
18.4.1\tHuman resources and training | 412 | ||
18.5\tMAINTENANCE SCHEDULING | 413 | ||
18.6\tEMERGENCY SUPPLIES | 413 | ||
18.7\tLEGAL | 414 | ||
18.7.1\tWater law | 414 | ||
18.7.2\tBylaws | 416 | ||
18.7.3\tInspectorates | 417 | ||
18.7.4\tRegulation | 417 | ||
18.7.5\tCompetition | 418 | ||
18.8 SEWER MAINTENANCE DATA PROCESSING | 419 | ||
18.8.1Application | 419 | ||
18.8.2 Processing of sewer maintenance data | 420 | ||
18.9\tREFERENCES | 422 |