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Abstract
Municipal Wastewater Management in Developing Countries discusses various approaches to municipal wastewater management in order to protect both public health and the environment, with the major focus being on waterborne diseases. Developing countries can be divided into two main categories, i.e. countries in transition with higher growth rates where industrialisation and urbanisation are taking place rapidly, and countries with slower growth rates. It is important, therefore, that approaches should be tailor-made and site-specific. In general, the major trends of water pollution control have significantly contributed to the development of ?conventional sanitation? approaches in terms of legal and financial frameworks, as well as technological enhancement. Despite advances in the science, engineering and legal frameworks, 95 per cent of the wastewater in the world is released into the environment without treatment. Only five per cent of global wastewater is properly treated using the ?standard? sanitation facilities, mainly in developed countries. As a result, the majority of the world?s population is still exposed to waterborne diseases, and the quality of water resources has been rapidly degraded, particularly in poor developing countries. The challenge now is to provide the world?s population, especially the poor, with adequate water and sanitation facilities. Despite billions of dollars of investment spent every year, billions of poor people are still suffering and dying because of poor sanitation. At the beginning of this century, about 1.1 billion people lived without access to clean water (compared to about the same number in 1990), 2.4 billion without appropriate sanitation (compared to 2.3 billion in 1990) and four billion without sound wastewater disposal. The future scenario, that water resources will be further depleted by a growing world population, will be coupled with environmental degradation due to poor pollution control, particularly in most of the developing countries. In order to address the issue of water and wastewater management in developing countries it is necessary to take into consideration the segments of the society itself, particularly the types of housing areas. The segments will indicate the level of socio-economic, mentality and knowledge, which is important for any planned changes in their life style and social engineering. It is also important to segregate the funding framework of any proposed projects. High-income urban communities, for instance, are generally willing to pay for sewerage services and higher water supply tariffs, therefore a designated system can be accordingly provided. Over the past 10 years, serious criticism has been given to the ?conventional sanitation? approach, consequently many definitions, concepts and characteristics have been proposed on ?sustainable sanitation?. Sustainable sanitation is a relevant concept in order to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 of providing water supply and adequate sanitation for developing countries. Sustainable sanitation is flexible in approach any community ? poor or rich, urban or rural, water-rich or water-poor country ? and requires lower investment costs compared to conventional sanitation approaches. It is also important to note that the framework of sustainable sanitation is much easier to adopt in developing countries where water supply and sanitation infrastructures are still in the developing stages. In some developing countries, no public facilities are available therefore it is an ideal condition to start a new infrastructure with a new framework. This comprehensive reference, prepared by leading international authorities, will provide an invaluable reference for all those concerned with the management of sanitation services in developing countries worldwide.
Table of Contents
Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
---|---|---|---|
Contents | 6 | ||
Preface | 15 | ||
1 Sustainable sanitation for developing countries | 18 | ||
1.1\tINTRODUCTION | 18 | ||
1.1.1\tMajor trends | 19 | ||
1.1.2\tConventional sanitation approach | 20 | ||
1.1.3 The challenge | 22 | ||
1.1.4 Dilemma of developing countries | 23 | ||
1.2\tPOOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES | 25 | ||
1.3 COUNTRIES WITH HIGH GROWTH RATES | 26 | ||
1.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CATEGORIES | 26 | ||
1.5\tSUSTAINABILITY AND SANITATION | 28 | ||
1.6\tSUSTAINABLE SANITATION FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES | 32 | ||
REFERENCES | 33 | ||
2 Setting effluent quality standards | 34 | ||
2.1\tINTRODUCTION | 34 | ||
2.1.1\tCurrent conditions | 36 | ||
2.1.2\tSetting realistic quality standards based on available resources | 38 | ||
2.2\tWATER QUALITY | 42 | ||
2.2.1\tWater quality criteria and standards | 42 | ||
2.2.2\tScientific basis for development of criteria and standards | 43 | ||
2.2.3\tClasses of water | 44 | ||
2.3\tCRITERIA FOR DISCHARGE | 45 | ||
2.3.1\tAssimilative capacity of receiving environments | 46 | ||
2.3.2\tRelating discharges to assimilative capacity of receiving environments | 47 | ||
2.3.3\tSetting effluent standards with multiple discharges | 48 | ||
2.3.4\tDischarge licences for water quality control | 49 | ||
2.4\tCRITERIA FOR REUSE | 50 | ||
2.4.1\tReuse as a means of water quality control | 51 | ||
2.4.2\tWater quality criteria for reuse | 52 | ||
2.4.3 Reuse for forestry, agriculture (including hydroponic systems), horticulture, aquaculture, polyculture | 54 | ||
2.4.3.1 An example of wastewater reuse for Aquaculture in a developing country | 56 | ||
2.5\tCASE STUDIES OF A DEVELOPING COUNTRY | 57 | ||
57 | |||
2.5.1.1 Standards | 57 | ||
2.5.1.2 Governance | 58 | ||
REFERENCES | 59 | ||
3 Strategy and planning of sewerage infrastructures | 63 | ||
3.1\tINTRODUCTION | 63 | ||
64 | |||
3.1.1\tMalaysia in brief | 64 | ||
3.1.2 Sewerage development in Malaysia | 64 | ||
3.2\tSEWERAGE POLICY | 69 | ||
3.2.1 National framework | 71 | ||
3.2.1.1\tRegional and local authorities | 72 | ||
3.2.1.2\tPrivatisation | 72 | ||
3.3\tCAPITAL CONTRIBUTION | 74 | ||
3.4\tCATCHMENT STRATEGY | 81 | ||
3.4.1\tSewerage system | 81 | ||
3.4.2\tBasic principles | 82 | ||
3.4.3\tSewerage management alternatives | 82 | ||
3.4.4\tFinancial analysis and options | 84 | ||
3.5\tCONCLUSION | 85 | ||
REFERENCES | 85 | ||
4 Wastewater treatment technology | 87 | ||
4.1\tINTRODUCTION | 87 | ||
4.2\tBIOFILM SYSTEM | 89 | ||
4.2.1\tMass balances for biofilters | 89 | ||
4.2.1.1 Biofilters without recycle | 89 | ||
4.2.1.2 Biofilters with recycle | 90 | ||
4.2.2\tConcept and definitions for biofilters | 91 | ||
4.2.3\tDesign of biofilters | 92 | ||
4.2.3.1 Design of trickling filters | 93 | ||
4.2.3.2 Design of rotating biological contactors or discs | 95 | ||
4.2.3.3 Other type of filters | 95 | ||
4.2.4\tTechnical conditions concerning biofilters | 96 | ||
4.2.4.1 Aeration of biofilters | 96 | ||
4.2.4.2 Growth and sloughing off the biofilm | 96 | ||
4.3\tACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT SYSTEM | 98 | ||
4.3.1\tMass balance in activated sludge plant | 98 | ||
4.3.2\tConcept and definitions of the activated sludge process | 101 | ||
4.3.3\tDesign of the activated sludge processes | 109 | ||
4.3.4\tDesign using volumetric loading | 109 | ||
4.3.5\tThe design using sludge loading or sludge age | 112 | ||
4.4\tHYBRID TECHNOLOGY | 114 | ||
4.5\tCONCLUSION | 114 | ||
REFERENCES | 114 | ||
5 Collection systems - dry and wet weather performance | 116 | ||
5.1\tINTRODUCTION | 116 | ||
5.2\tTYPES OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS | 118 | ||
5.3\tSOURCES AND QUANTITIES FOR DRY WEATHER WASTEWATER | 120 | ||
5.3.1\tWastewater from households | 120 | ||
5.3.2\tInstitutions, business areas and industries | 122 | ||
5.3.3\tInfiltration and drainage of buildings | 123 | ||
5.4\tSTORMWATER QUANTITIES | 124 | ||
5.4.1\tPrecipitation and design storms | 126 | ||
5.4.2\tChoosing return frequency and storm duration | 128 | ||
5.4.3\tImpervious surfaces and runoff coefficients | 129 | ||
5.4.4\tRunoff hydrographs | 130 | ||
5.5\tROOTING OF DRY AND WET WEATHER FLOW | 131 | ||
5.5.1\tDry weather flow | 131 | ||
5.5.2\tWet weather flow | 132 | ||
5.6\tWASTEWATER QUALITY | 133 | ||
5.6.1\tTypes and concentrations of wastewater quality parameters | 133 | ||
5.6.2\tCharacterization of wastewater organic matter | 136 | ||
5.6.3\tVariability in wastewater composition | 140 | ||
5.7\tSTORMWATER QUALITY | 141 | ||
5.7.1\tSeparate systems | 141 | ||
5.7.2\tCombined systems | 142 | ||
5.7.3\tPollutants variability | 143 | ||
5.8\tSTORMWATER IMPACT MITIGATION | 144 | ||
5.9\tCHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN SEWERS | 145 | ||
5.9.1\tWhy simulate sewer processes? | 146 | ||
5.9.2\tCorrosion and odours | 146 | ||
5.9.3\tTreatment plant impacts | 147 | ||
5.9.4\tReceiving water impacts | 147 | ||
5.9.5\tIntegrated urban wastewater management | 147 | ||
5.10\tCONCLUDING REMARKS | 149 | ||
REFERENCES | 149 | ||
6 Conventional small and decentralised wastewater systems | 151 | ||
6.1\tINTRODUCTION | 151 | ||
6.1.1\tCurrent practices in developing countries | 152 | ||
6.1.2\tConventional and decentralised wastewater systems | 153 | ||
6.2.\tSMALL SYTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY | 154 | ||
6.2.1 Relationship between small systems and sustainability | 154 | ||
6.2.2 Economic, social and cultural implications of small systems | 157 | ||
6.3 SEWERAGE SYSTEMS | 158 | ||
6.3.1 Settled sewerage (small bore sewerage) | 158 | ||
6.3.2 Simplified sewerage (shallow sewerage, including condominial sewerage) | 159 | ||
6.3.3 Low cost sewerage and community involvement | 160 | ||
6.4 SMALL SYSTEMS | 161 | ||
6.4.1 Ponds and lagoons | 161 | ||
6.4.2 Constructed Wetlands | 161 | ||
6.4.3 Land based treatment systems | 162 | ||
6.4.4 Reuse | 164 | ||
6.4.5 Aquaculture systems | 165 | ||
6.4.6 Sludge management | 165 | ||
6.5 ONSITE SYSTEMS | 166 | ||
6.5.1 Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine | 166 | ||
6.5.2 Vermicompost toilets | 166 | ||
6.5.3 Composting toilets | 168 | ||
6.5.4 Pour flush toilets | 169 | ||
6.5.5 Septic tanks (including Imhoff tanks) | 170 | ||
6.5.6 Leach drains | 171 | ||
6.5.7 Evapotranspiration beds | 171 | ||
6.5.8 Digesters (small anaerobic systems) | 172 | ||
6.5.9 Reuse of wastewater and sludge | 173 | ||
6.6 SELECTION OF SMALL AND ONSITE SYSTEMS | 174 | ||
6.6.1 Decision support tools for selection of small and onsite systems | 174 | ||
6.6.2 Computer based decision support tools | 175 | ||
SANEX© | 176 | ||
Sanitation alternatives considered in SANEX© | 176 | ||
Two-Stage Evaluation | 177 | ||
Multi-Level Amalgamation | 177 | ||
Costing of Sanitation Alternatives | 177 | ||
6.7 CASE STUDY FROM AFRICA | 177 | ||
6.7.1 Onsite technologies employed in Africa | 179 | ||
Septic Tanks | 179 | ||
Reid’s Odourless Earth Closet (ROEC) | 179 | ||
Double-vault VIP latrine | 180 | ||
Composting Toilets | 181 | ||
6.7.2 Onsite system application | 181 | ||
REFERENCES | 182 | ||
7 Waste stabilization ponds | 185 | ||
7.1 Introduction | 185 | ||
7.2 Water are waste stabilization ponds? | 186 | ||
7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of WSP | 187 | ||
7.4 Financial and economic aspects of WSP | 188 | ||
7.5 Main types of WSP | 189 | ||
7.6 Other WSP formats | 190 | ||
7.7 Anaerobic ponds | 191 | ||
7.8 Facultative ponds | 193 | ||
7.9 Why ponds do not smell | 196 | ||
7.10 Maturation ponds | 196 | ||
7.11 Operation and maintenance of WSP | 205 | ||
References | 205 | ||
8 Design and operation of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and reuse | 209 | ||
8.1\tINTRODUCTION | 209 | ||
8.2\tTYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS | 210 | ||
8.2.1\tFree water surface (FWS) systems | 210 | ||
8.2.2\tSubsurface flow (SF) systems | 210 | ||
8.2.3\tAdvantages and disadvantages | 211 | ||
8.3\tTYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF VEGETATION | 212 | ||
8.4\tWASTEWATER TREATMENT MECHANISMS | 212 | ||
8.4.1\tBOD removal | 213 | ||
8.4.2\tSuspended solids removal | 213 | ||
8.4.3\tNitrogen removal | 213 | ||
8.4.4\tPhosphorus removal | 215 | ||
8.4.5\tHeavy metals removal | 215 | ||
8.4.6\tTrace organics removal | 215 | ||
8.4.7\tPathogen removal | 215 | ||
8.5\tDESIGN EQUATIONS | 216 | ||
8.5.1\tFWS constructed wetlands | 216 | ||
8.5.2\tSF constructed wetlands | 221 | ||
8.6\tOTHER CONSIDERATIONS | 224 | ||
8.6.1\tHydraulic budget | 224 | ||
8.6.2\tSite selection | 225 | ||
8.6.3\tFlow patterns | 225 | ||
8.6.4\tSlope | 226 | ||
8.6.5\tLiners | 226 | ||
8.7\tOPERATION AND MAINTENANCE | 226 | ||
8.7.1\tMosquito control | 226 | ||
8.7.2\tPlant harvesting | 227 | ||
8.7.3\tSystem perturbations and operation modifications | 227 | ||
8.8\tCASE STUDIES | 231 | ||
8.8.1\tCase Study A: Emmitsburg, Maryland, USA, SF Constructed Wetland | 231 | ||
8.8.2\tCase Study B: The Eastern Seaboard Industrial Estate (ESIE), Rayong Province, Eastern Thailand, Vertical-flow Constructed Wetlands | 231 | ||
8.8.3\tCase Study C: Vertical-flow Constructed Wetlands for Septage Dewatering and Stabilization, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand | 233 | ||
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 235 | ||
REFERENCES | 235 | ||
9 Innovation and technology for sustainability | 236 | ||
9.1\tINTRODUCTION | 236 | ||
9.1.1\tSustainability as a context | 238 | ||
9.1.2\tDrivers for technology innovation | 239 | ||
9.2\tCURRENT ADVANCES AND INNOVATIONS | 241 | ||
9.2.1 Innovations in onsite systems | 242 | ||
9.2.2. Innovations in sewerage systems | 245 | ||
9.2.3 Innovations in treatment systems | 246 | ||
9.2.4 Innovations in reuse systems | 247 | ||
9.3 RESEARCH NEEDS | 248 | ||
9.3.1 Technology | 249 | ||
9.3.2 Technology management | 250 | ||
9.3.3 Environmental health | 251 | ||
REFERENCES | 252 | ||
10 Sludge treatment and management | 254 | ||
10.1\tINTRODUCTION | 254 | ||
10.2 CHARACTERIZATION | 255 | ||
10.2.1 Types of sludges | 255 | ||
10.2.2 Sludge production | 255 | ||
10.2.3 Quality | 256 | ||
10.2.3.1 Physical characteristics | 256 | ||
10.2.3.2 Chemical | 258 | ||
10.2.3.3 Biological characteristics | 258 | ||
10.3 TREATMENT | 264 | ||
10.3.1 Degritting | 264 | ||
10.3.2 Thickening | 264 | ||
10.3.3 Conditioning | 265 | ||
10.3.4 Dewatering | 267 | ||
10.3.5 Stabilization | 267 | ||
10.3.5.1 Alkaline stabilization | 268 | ||
10.3.5.2 Composting | 271 | ||
10.3.5.3 Anaerobic digestion | 274 | ||
10.3.5.4 Acid treatment | 275 | ||
10.3.6 Storage | 276 | ||
10.3.7 Considerations for process selection | 276 | ||
10.4 SLUDGE REDUCTION | 279 | ||
10.5 SEPTIC TANKS | 280 | ||
10.6 BENEFICIAL USES OF BIOSOLIDS | 280 | ||
10.6.1 Agricultural application | 281 | ||
10.6.2 Remediation | 284 | ||
10.6.3 Desalinization of soils | 285 | ||
10.6.4 Forest use | 285 | ||
10.6.5 Non conventional uses of sludges | 285 | ||
10.7\tCONFINEMENT | 286 | ||
10.7.1 Monofills | 286 | ||
10.7.2 Ponds and lagoons | 286 | ||
10.7.3 Specific disposal sites | 286 | ||
10.7.4 Municipal sanitary landfills | 288 | ||
10.8\tLEGISLATION | 291 | ||
10.8.1 South Africa | 291 | ||
10.8.2 Mexico | 291 | ||
10.8.3\tChile | 292 | ||
10.8.4\tChina | 294 | ||
10.8.5 \tBrazil | 294 | ||
10.9 SAMPLING AND MONITORING ISSUES | 295 | ||
10.9.1 Sampling | 295 | ||
10.9.2 Vector attraction | 297 | ||
10.10 COSTS | 298 | ||
10.11 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES | 298 | ||
10.11.1 Mexico | 298 | ||
10.11.2 Brazil | 300 | ||
10.11.3 Argentina | 300 | ||
10.11.4 Chile | 301 | ||
10.11.5 China | 301 | ||
10.11.6 Accra, Ghana | 302 | ||
10.11.7 Alexandria, Egypt | 303 | ||
10.11.8 Europe | 303 | ||
10.12\tACTIVITIES NEEDED | 304 | ||
REFERENCES | 304 | ||
11.1\tINTRODUCTION | 310 | ||
11.2\tMAJOR ISSUES | 313 | ||
11.3\tPLANNING AND STRATEGY FOR SEWERAGE CATCHMENT | 316 | ||
11.3.1\tInstitutional framework | 316 | ||
Sewage Flow and Sludge Generation Estimate Estimation of sewage flow and associated pollutant loading and sludge generation rate are important considerations as they dictate the sizing of collection and conveyance systems, and the determination of treatm | 323 | ||
Assess Existing Sewerage Deficiencies Constraints that exist within the current sewerage infrastructures to receive future sewage loads must be identified. Among the major factors that would be considered to propose alternatives in solving existing const | 323 | ||
11.6\tDATABASE AND ZONING | 333 | ||
11.6.1\tTypes of sewage plants | 333 | ||
11.7\tINSPECTION AND EFFLUENT QUALITY MONITORING | 338 | ||
11.8\tUPGRADING STRATEGY | 340 | ||
11.9 RATIONALISATION STRATEGY | 341 | ||
11.10\tFUTURE CHALLENGES FOR MALAYSIA | 346 | ||
REFERENCES | 348 |