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Book Details
Abstract
Pond treatment technology is used in tens of thousands of applications serving many millions of people across the globe - why? Simply because it is efficient and effective. While pond treatment technology offers relative simplicity in its application, it incorporates a host of complex and diverse mechanisms that work to treat and cleanse polluted waters before their return to our environment. This book offers a comprehensive review of the pond technology field including the newest ideas and latest findings. Topics covered include: The physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the pond environment; A detailed review of pond treatment mechanisms and performance; Comprehensive guidance on pond design, operation and upgrade options; A range of chapters summarising new and emerging pond technologies; The integration of ponds with wetlands and aquaculture systems and their use as storage reservoirs; Special applications of pond technology in cold climates, for agricultural wastes and for treatment of stormwater. The objective of this book is to get this wealth of knowledge "out there" to the users to ensure the continuous improvement and ongoing success of this crucial technology.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contents | v | ||
| Foreword | xii | ||
| Contributors | xiv | ||
| 1.0 Introduction to pond treatment technology | xvii | ||
| 1.1 THE POND ENVIRONMENT | xvii | ||
| 1.2 THE ‘STANDARD’ POND SYSTEM | xviii | ||
| 1.2.1\tAnaerobic ponds | xix | ||
| 1.2.2\tFacultative ponds | xix | ||
| 1.2.3\tMaturation ponds | xx | ||
| 1.3\tPOND DESIGN AND OPERATION | xx | ||
| 1.4\tOTHER POND TYPES AND SPECIAL APPLICATIONS | xx | ||
| 1.4.1\tFermentation/digestion pits | xx | ||
| 1.4.2\tHi-rate algal ponds | xxi | ||
| 1.4.3\tAdvanced pond systems | xxi | ||
| 1.4.4\tThe PETRO process | xxi | ||
| 1.4.5\tIntegrated ponds and wetland systems | xxii | ||
| 1.4.6\tAquaculture ponds | xxii | ||
| 1.4.7\tStorage ponds/reservoirs | xxii | ||
| 1.4.8\tCold climate ponds | xxiii | ||
| 1.4.9\tAgricultural wastewater ponds | xxiii | ||
| 1.4.10\t\tStormwater ponds | xxiii | ||
| 1.5\tWATER QUALITY AND REGULATORY ISSUES | xxiii | ||
| 1.6\tEVALUATION OF THE TECHNOLOGIES | xxiv | ||
| 1.6.1 An appropriate technology | xxvi | ||
| 1.6.2 A sustainable energy technology | xxvi | ||
| 1.7\tSUMMARY | xxvii | ||
| REFERENCES | xxix | ||
| 2.0 Microbiology of waste stabilisation ponds | xxx | ||
| 2.1\tINTRODUCTION | xxx | ||
| 2.2\tANAEROBIC PROCESSES AND CARBON REMOVAL IN PONDS | xxxi | ||
| 2.2.1 Anaerobic digestion and methanogenesis in ponds | xxxi | ||
| 2.2.2 Sulphate reduction and the risk of odour production | xxxii | ||
| 2.2.3 Importance of the surface crust and the bottom sludge layer | xxxiii | ||
| 2.3 AEROBIC PROCESSES AND CARBON REMOVAL IN PONDS | xxxiv | ||
| 2.3.1\tAerobic bacteria | xxxiv | ||
| 2.4\tPHOTOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES IN PONDS | xxxiv | ||
| 2.4.1\tPhotosynthetic oxygen production by pond algae | xxxiv | ||
| 2.2.2 Factors controlling algal photosynthesis | xxxvi | ||
| 2.2.3 Impact of algal photosynthesis on pond pH | xxxvii | ||
| 2.4.4\tAlgal dynamics and stratification | xxxvii | ||
| 2.5\tALGAL DIVERSITY AND FACTORS CONTROLLING ALGAL DOMINANCE | xxxviii | ||
| 2.5.1 Algal photo-organotrophy and chemo-organotrophy | xli | ||
| 2.5.2 Algal predation by pond fauna and the impact on pond efficiency | xlii | ||
| 2.5.3\tAnoxic photosynthesis and the photosynthetic bacteria | xliii | ||
| 2.5.4 Impact of algal biomass on effluent quality | xliv | ||
| 2.6\tMICROBIAL PROCESSES AND NUTRIENT REMOVAL IN PONDS | xlv | ||
| 2.6.1 Nitrogen transformations and removal | xlv | ||
| 2.6.2 Phosphorus transformation and removal | xlvii | ||
| 2.7\tMICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SPECIAL POND SYSTEMS | xlviii | ||
| 2.7.1\tMacrophyte ponds | xlviii | ||
| 2.7.2 High rate algal pond systems (HRAP) | l | ||
| 2.7.3 Attached-growth ponds | li | ||
| 2.7.4 Wastewater storage and treatment reservoirs (WSTR) | lii | ||
| 2.8\tTHE NEED FOR FUTURE MICROBIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN PONDS | lvi | ||
| 2.8.1 The nitrogen removal process | lvi | ||
| 2.8.2 The algae | lvii | ||
| 2.8.3 Biofilms and bacterial consortia | lvii | ||
| 2.8.4 Zooplankton | lviii | ||
| 2.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS | lviii | ||
| REFERENCES | lix | ||
| 3.0 Physical and chemical environments | lxv | ||
| 3.1\tTHE DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT | lxv | ||
| 3.2\tLIGHT | lxvi | ||
| 3.2.1\tIntroduction | lxvi | ||
| 3.2.2\tThe nature of light | lxvii | ||
| 3.2.3\tLight attenuation | lxvii | ||
| 3.2.4\tAlgal and non-algal light attenuation | lxviii | ||
| 3.2.5\tMeasurement of light | lxix | ||
| 3.3\tDISSOLVED OXYGEN | lxx | ||
| 3.3.1\tSignificance of oxygen | lxx | ||
| 3.3.2\tSources of Oxygen | lxxi | ||
| 3.3.3\tOxygen dynamics | lxxi | ||
| 3.3.4\tMeasurement of oxygen | lxxii | ||
| 3.3.5\tRedox and redox potential and its relationship with oxygen | lxxiii | ||
| 3.4\tpH | lxxiii | ||
| 3.4.1\tThe nature and significance of pH | lxxiii | ||
| 3.4.2\tThe carbonate/bicarbonate buffering system | lxxiv | ||
| 3.4.3\tTemporal and spatial variation in pH | lxxiv | ||
| 3.4.4\tMeasurement of pH | lxxv | ||
| 3.5\tTEMPERATURE | lxxv | ||
| 3.5.1\tWhy temperature is important | lxxv | ||
| 3.5.2\tStratification | lxxv | ||
| 3.5.3\tThermal short-circuiting | lxxvi | ||
| 3.5.4\tImplications for hydraulics | lxxvi | ||
| 3.6\tSALINITY | lxxvi | ||
| 3.7\tELEMENTAL CYCLING | lxxvi | ||
| 3.7.1\tNitrogen | lxxvi | ||
| 3.7.2\tSulphur | lxxvii | ||
| 3.7.3\tPhosphorus | lxxviii | ||
| 3.7.4\tCarbon | lxxviii | ||
| 3.8\tSUMMARY | lxxviii | ||
| 3.9\tRESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS | lxxix | ||
| REFERENCES | lxxix | ||
| 4.0 Solids and organics | lxxxii | ||
| 4.1\tWASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS | lxxxii | ||
| 4.1.1\tGeneral overview | lxxxii | ||
| 4.1.2\tOrganic constituents | lxxxiv | ||
| 4.1.3\tSolid constituents | lxxxv | ||
| 4.1.4\tDecay prior to treatment | lxxxv | ||
| 4.2\tGROWTH OF SOLIDS AND ORGANICS WITHIN A POND | lxxxvi | ||
| 4.2.1\tBacterial growth | lxxxvi | ||
| 4.2.2\tAlgal growth | lxxxvi | ||
| 4.2.3\tGrowth of higher-level organisms | lxxxvii | ||
| 4.3\tDECAY OF SOLIDS AND ORGANICS WITHIN A POND | lxxxvii | ||
| 4.3.1\tOverview of decay in ponds | lxxxvii | ||
| 4.3.2\tAerobic decay | lxxxvii | ||
| 4.3.3\tGrazing by higher-level aerobes | lxxxix | ||
| 4.3.4\tAnaerobic decay in the liquid zone | lxxxix | ||
| 4.3.5\tThe benthic/sludge zone | lxxxix | ||
| 4.3.6\tBenthic feedback | xc | ||
| 4.4\tTREATMENT PERFORMANCE | xc | ||
| 4.5\tSUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | xci | ||
| REFERENCES | xci | ||
| 5.0 Nutrients | xciii | ||
| 5.1\tINTRODUCTION | xciii | ||
| 5.1.1\tTypical wastewater nutrient concentrations | xciv | ||
| 5.2\tNUTRIENT REMOVAL PROCESSES | xcv | ||
| 5.2.1\tSedimentation of wastewater solids | xcvii | ||
| 5.2.2\tAlgal / bacterial assimilation | xcvii | ||
| Nitrogen source | xcviii | ||
| Phosphorus source | xcviii | ||
| Algal synthesis | xcviii | ||
| The effect of pH | xcix | ||
| Luxury consumption | c | ||
| Sedimentation of algal/bacterial biomass | c | ||
| 5.2.3\tAmmonia volatilisation | c | ||
| 5.2.4\tPhosphate precipitation | c | ||
| 5.2.5\tAdsorption | cii | ||
| 5.2.6\tNitrification / Denitrification | cii | ||
| Nitrification | cii | ||
| Denitrification | ciii | ||
| 5.2.7\tHeterotrophic nitrification / denitrification | civ | ||
| 5.2.8\tPhosphine production | civ | ||
| 5.3\tRELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESSES | civ | ||
| 5.4\tRELEASE OF NUTRIENTS FROM POND SLUDGE | cv | ||
| 5.4.1\tPond sludge phosphorus content | cv | ||
| 5.5\tNUTRIENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCY | cvi | ||
| 5.5.1 Predicting Nutrient Removal Performance | cvii | ||
| 5.6\tIMPROVING NUTRIENT REMOVAL | cix | ||
| 5.6.1\tAerobic ponds - maturation and high rate ponds | cix | ||
| 5.6.2\tBiofilm attachment surfaces | cx | ||
| 5.6.3\tPrecipitation and adsorption | cx | ||
| 5.7 SUMMARY | cx | ||
| 5.8 FURTHER RESEARCH | cxi | ||
| 5.8.1\tNitrogen removal | cxi | ||
| 5.8.2\tPhosphorus removal | cxi | ||
| REFERENCES | cxi | ||
| 6.0 Pond disinfection | cxvi | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | cxvi | ||
| 6.2 PATHOGENS AND INDICATOR ORGANISMS | cxvii | ||
| 6.2.1 Pathogens | cxvii | ||
| 6.2.2\tIndicators | cxix | ||
| 6.3 OVERVIEW OF DISINFECTION | cxxi | ||
| 6.3.1\tTemperature | cxxi | ||
| 6.3.2\tHydraulic residence time (HRT) | cxxi | ||
| 6.3.3\tAlgal toxins | cxxiii | ||
| 6.3.4\tSedimentation | cxxiii | ||
| 6.3.5 ‘Biological disinfection’ (ingestion by antagonistic microbes) | cxxiii | ||
| 6.4\tSUNLIGHT-MEDIATED DISINFECTION | cxxiv | ||
| 6.4.1\tWavelength | cxxv | ||
| 6.4.2\tThe mechanisms | cxxvi | ||
| 6.4.3\tOxygen | cxxviii | ||
| 6.4.4\tpH | cxxviii | ||
| 6.4.5\tHumic substances | cxxviii | ||
| 6.4.6\tModelling bacterial indicator removal in WSPs | cxxix | ||
| 6.5\tBACTERIAL PATHOGEN REMOVAL | cxxx | ||
| 6.5.1\tSalmonella | cxxx | ||
| 6.5.2\tShigella | cxxx | ||
| 6.5.3\tVibrio cholerae | cxxxi | ||
| 6.5.4\tCampylobacter | cxxxi | ||
| 6.5.5\tOther bacterial indicators and pathogens | cxxxii | ||
| 6.6\tVIRUS REMOVAL | cxxxiii | ||
| 6.6.1\tBacteriophages as model viruses | cxxxiii | ||
| 6.6.2\tPhage behaviour in WSPs | cxxxiv | ||
| 6.6.3\tVirus removal | cxxxv | ||
| 6.7\tREMOVAL AND VIABILITY OF HELMINTH OVA | cxxxv | ||
| 6.7.1\tHelminths in WSP sludge | cxxxvi | ||
| 6.8\tPROTOZOAN REMOVAL | cxxxvi | ||
| 6.9\tINFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL DESIGN | cxxxvii | ||
| 6.9.1\tPond configuration and depth | cxxxviii | ||
| 6.9.2\tInlet and outlet structures and baffling | cxxxix | ||
| 6.9.3\tWastewater treatment and storage reservoirs | cxl | ||
| 6.10\tPOST DISINFECTION OF WSP EFFLUENTS | cxl | ||
| 6.10.1\t\tChlorine | cxli | ||
| 6.10.2\t\tOzone | cxli | ||
| 6.10.3\t\tUltra-violet disinfection | cxlii | ||
| 6.10.4\t\tFilters | cxlii | ||
| 6.11\tRESEARCH NEEDS | cxliii | ||
| 6.12\tSUMMARY | cxlv | ||
| REFERENCES | cxlvi | ||
| 7.0 Heavy metal removal | cliii | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | cliii | ||
| 7.1.1\tTypical wastewater heavy metal concentrations | cliii | ||
| 7.2\tHEAVY METAL REMOVAL PROCESSES | cliv | ||
| 7.2.1\tSedimentation of wastewater Solids | cliv | ||
| 7.2.2\tAdsorption | cliv | ||
| 7.2.3\tBioaccumulation | clv | ||
| 7.2.4\tChelation | clvi | ||
| 7.2.5\tPrecipitation | clvii | ||
| 7.3\tRELEASE OF HEAVY METALS FROM POND SLUDGE | clvii | ||
| 7.4\tHEAVY METAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCY | clvii | ||
| 7.5\tSUMMARY | clix | ||
| 7.6\tFURTHER RESEARCH | clix | ||
| REFERENCES | clix | ||
| 8.1\tLOADING RATES | clxi | ||
| 8.2\tEMPIRICAL DESIGN EQUATIONS | clxiii | ||
| 8.3\tPOND DESIGN USING REACTOR THEORY | clxiv | ||
| 8.3.1\tIdeal flow | clxiv | ||
| 8.3.2\tNon-ideal flow | clxv | ||
| 8.3.3\tCombined pond models | clxvii | ||
| 8.3.4\tThe reaction rate constant | clxviii | ||
| 8.3.5\tThe Dispersion Number | clxxi | ||
| 8.4\tMATHEMATICAL MODELLING | clxxiv | ||
| 8.4.1\tReaction modelling | clxxiv | ||
| 8.4.2\tHydraulic modelling | clxxvi | ||
| 8.4.3\tIntegrated models | clxxvii | ||
| 8.5\tSUMMARY | clxxix | ||
| REFERENCES | clxxx | ||
| 9.0 Pond process design - a practical guide | clxxxiv | ||
| 9.1\tINTRODUCTION | clxxxiv | ||
| 9.2\tEFFLUENT QUALITY | clxxxv | ||
| 9.3\tANAEROBIC PONDS | clxxxvi | ||
| 9.3.1\tDesign | clxxxvi | ||
| 9.4\tFACULTATIVE PONDS | clxxxvii | ||
| 9.4.1\tDesign | clxxxviii | ||
| 9.4.2\tTreatment efficiency | clxxxix | ||
| BOD | clxxxix | ||
| Pathogens | cxc | ||
| 9.5\tMATURATION PONDS | cxc | ||
| 9.5.1\tDesign | cxci | ||
| Ammonia removal | cxcii | ||
| 9.6\tPHYSICAL SIZING | cxciii | ||
| 9.7\tPOND EFFLUENT REUSE | cxcv | ||
| 9.7.1\tAgricultural reuse | cxcv | ||
| 9.7.2\tAquacultural reuse | cxcv | ||
| Total nitrogen | cxcv | ||
| Faecal coliforms | cxcvi | ||
| Free ammonia | cxcvi | ||
| 9.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE | cxcvii | ||
| 9.8.1 Solution | cxcvii | ||
| 9.9\tCASE STUDY | cc | ||
| 9.9.1\tSolution | cc | ||
| 9.10 FUTURE DESIGN DIRECTIONS | cci | ||
| REFERENCES | ccii | ||
| 10.0 Hydraulic design | cciv | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION TO POND HYDRAULICS | cciv | ||
| 10.1.1 The Theoretical Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) | cciv | ||
| 10.1.2\t\tIdeal flow - plug-flow and completely mixed flow | ccv | ||
| 10.1.3\t\tHydraulic short-circuiting | ccvi | ||
| 10.1.4\t\tDead space and flow velocities | ccvii | ||
| 10.1.5\t\tNon-ideal flow and the dispersion number | ccviii | ||
| 10.1.6\t\tTracer studies | ccix | ||
| 10.1.7\tComputational fluid dynamics | ccx | ||
| 10.2\tINPUTS AND INFLUENCES ON HYDRAULICS | ccxi | ||
| 10.3\tRELATING HYDRAULICS TO TREATMENT | ccxi | ||
| 10.3.1\tThe treatment relationship | ccxi | ||
| 10.3.2\t\tIntegrating hydraulic and treatment efficiency | ccxii | ||
| 10.3.3\t\tWhy not just design for plug flow? | ccxiii | ||
| 10.4\tINLET DESIGN | ccxiv | ||
| 10.4.1\t\tUse of large horizontal inlets | ccxv | ||
| 10.4.2\t\tThe jet attachment technique | ccxv | ||
| 10.4.3\t\tVertical inlet | ccxv | ||
| 10.4.4\t\tDiffuse (manifold) inlet | ccxvi | ||
| 10.4.5\t\tInflow dropping from a horizontal pipe | ccxvi | ||
| 10.4.6\t\tInlet type – practical considerations and recommendations | ccxvii | ||
| 10.4.7\t\tInlet position | ccxvii | ||
| 10.4.8\t\tEffect of varying flowrate | ccxviii | ||
| 10.5\t\tOUTLET DESIGN | ccxviii | ||
| 10.5.1\t\tOutlet depth | ccxviii | ||
| 10.5.2\t\tOutlet position – influence on efficiency | ccxviii | ||
| 10.5.3\t\tOutlet position – influence on flow pattern | ccxix | ||
| 10.5.4\t\tOutlet manifolds | ccxix | ||
| 10.5.5\t\tOutlet position - design suggestions | ccxix | ||
| Hydraulic dead spots | ccxix | ||
| Use of baffles to control flow | ccxx | ||
| Central outlets | ccxx | ||
| Use of flow deflectors | ccxx | ||
| Distance between inlet and outlet | ccxx | ||
| 10.6\t\tWIND | ccxx | ||
| 10.6.1\t\tJust how important are wind effects? | ccxx | ||
| 10.6.2\t\t Wind induced circulation | ccxxi | ||
| 10.6.3\t\tWind versus inlet mixing | ccxxi | ||
| 10.6.4\t\tApproximate analysis of mixing power input | ccxxii | ||
| 10.6.5\t\tControlling the effect of wind on pond hydraulics | ccxxiv | ||
| 10.7\t\tBAFFLES AND SHAPE | ccxxiv | ||
| 10.7.1\t\tHorizontal baffling across the pond (transverse) | ccxxiv | ||
| 10.7.2\t\tVertical baffling through the pond depth | ccxxv | ||
| 10.7.3\t\tLongitudinal versus transverse baffling | ccxxvi | ||
| 10.7.4\t\tInteractions of baffles and inlets | ccxxvi | ||
| 10.7.5\t\tNumber of baffles | ccxxvi | ||
| 10.7.6\t\tLength to width ratio | ccxxvii | ||
| 10.7.7\t\tAlternative baffle positioning | ccxxviii | ||
| 10.7.8\t\tThe stub baffle | ccxxviii | ||
| 10.8\t\tAERATORS, MIXERS AND TEMPERATURE | ccxxix | ||
| 10.8.1\t\tAerators and mixers | ccxxix | ||
| 10.8.2\t\tHigh rate algal ponds | ccxxix | ||
| 10.8.3\t\tTemperature effects | ccxxix | ||
| 10.9\tSummary and research recommendations | ccxxx | ||
| REFERENCES | ccxxxi | ||
| 11.0 Solids removal and other upgrading techniques | ccxxxiv | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | ccxxxiv | ||
| 11.2 INTERMITTENT SLOW SAND FILTRATION | ccxxxv | ||
| 11.2.1\t\t\tSummary of performance | ccxxxv | ||
| 11.2.2\t\t\tOperating periods | ccxxxvii | ||
| 11.2.3\t\t\tMaintenance requirements | ccxxxviii | ||
| 11.2.4\t\t\tHydraulic loading rates | ccxxxviii | ||
| 11.2.5\t\t\tDesign of intermittent sand filters | ccxxxix | ||
| 11.2.6\t\t\tDesign example – intermittent sand filters | ccxl | ||
| Determine dimensions of filters | ccxl | ||
| Influent distribution system | ccxl | ||
| Minimum freeboard required for filters | ccxl | ||
| 11.3 ROCK FILTERS | ccxl | ||
| 11.3.1\t\t\tPerformance of rock filters | ccxli | ||
| 11.3.2\t\t\tInter-pond rock filters | ccxliv | ||
| 11.3.3\t\t\tDesign of rock filters | ccxliv | ||
| 11.3.4\t\t\tMaintenance requirements | ccxlv | ||
| 11.4\tRAPID SAND FILTRATION | ccxlv | ||
| 11.5\tCOAGULATION-FLOCCULATION | ccxlv | ||
| 11.6\t\t\tDISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION | ccxlvi | ||
| 11.7\tMODIFICATIONS AND ADDITIONS TO TYPICAL DESIGNS | ccl | ||
| 11.7.1\t\t\tControlled discharge | ccl | ||
| 11.7.2\t\t\tHydrograph-controlled release | cclii | ||
| 11.7.3\t\t\tComplete-retention ponds | cclii | ||
| 11.8\tAUTOFLOCCULATION AND PHASE ISOLATION | ccliii | ||
| 11.9\tATTACHED GROWTH | ccliii | ||
| 11.10\tLAND APPLICATION/TREATMENT | ccliv | ||
| 11.10.1\tSlow rate irrigation (SR) | ccliv | ||
| 11.10.2\tRapid infiltration (RI) | ccliv | ||
| 11.10.3\tOverland flow (OF) | cclv | ||
| 11.10.4\tDesign concepts | cclvi | ||
| 11.11\tPARTIAL-MIX AERATED PONDS | cclvi | ||
| 11.11.1\tPartial-mix design model | cclvi | ||
| 11.11.2\tSelection of reaction rate constants | cclvii | ||
| 11.11.3\tInfluence of number of ponds | cclvii | ||
| 11.11.4 Design example | cclviii | ||
| 11.11.5\tTemperature effect | cclix | ||
| 11.11.6\tPond configuration | cclix | ||
| 11.11.7\tMixing and aeration | cclx | ||
| 11.12\tMACROPHYTE SYSTEMS | cclx | ||
| 11.13\tAQUACULTURE | cclx | ||
| 11.14\tUASB | cclx | ||
| 11.15\tULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION | cclx | ||
| 11.16\tPERFORMANCE COMPARISONS WITH OTHER REMOVAL METHODS | cclxi | ||
| REFERENCES | cclxiii | ||
| 12.0 Operation, maintenance and monitoring | cclxvi | ||
| 12.1\tINTRODUCTION | cclxvi | ||
| 12.2\tOPERATION | cclxvii | ||
| 12.2.1\t\t\tThe operating manual | cclxvii | ||
| 12.2.2\t\t\tRecords | cclxvii | ||
| Records required for operation and maintenance | cclxviii | ||
| 12.2.3\t\t\tOperations staff | cclxviii | ||
| Training | cclxx | ||
| 12.2.4\t\t\tFacilities, safety and security | cclxxi | ||
| 12.3\tMAINTENANCE | cclxxii | ||
| 12.3.1\t\t\tMaintenance duties and procedures | cclxxii | ||
| 12.3.2\t\t\tInlet works and intake structures | cclxxiii | ||
| 12.3.3 Pond maintenance | cclxxiv | ||
| 12.3.4\t\t\tMaintenance records | cclxxv | ||
| 12.4\tMONITORING | cclxxv | ||
| 12.4.1\t\t\tDefinitions and objectives | cclxxv | ||
| 12.4.2\t\t\tRegulatory monitoring programmes | cclxxvii | ||
| 12.4.3\t\t\tWSP evaluations | cclxxix | ||
| 12.4.4\t\t\tFlow | cclxxxii | ||
| 12.4.5\t\t\tAnalytical methods | cclxxxii | ||
| 12.5\t\tSLUDGE | cclxxxii | ||
| 12.5.1\t\t\tPredicting sludge accumulation | cclxxxii | ||
| 12.5.2\t\t\tMeasuring sludge accumulation | cclxxxiii | ||
| Pond sludge survey methods | cclxxxiv | ||
| Sludge survey data and analysis | cclxxxvi | ||
| Plots of sludge bathymetry | cclxxxvii | ||
| 12.5.3\t\t\tSludge removal | cclxxxvii | ||
| 12.5.4\t\t\tSludge disposal | cclxxxviii | ||
| Chemicals | cclxxxix | ||
| Pathogens | cclxxxix | ||
| 12.6\tEMISSIONS | ccxc | ||
| 12.6.1\t\t\tSources of odour | ccxc | ||
| 12.6.2\t\t\tOdour control | ccxci | ||
| Inlet works | ccxcii | ||
| Covering ponds | ccxcii | ||
| Anaerobic and facultative ponds | ccxcii | ||
| Maturation ponds | ccxciv | ||
| 12.6.3\t\t\tAerosols | ccxciv | ||
| 12.7\t\t\tFUTURE DEVELOPMENTS | ccxciv | ||
| REFERENCES | ccxcv | ||
| 13.0 Advanced integrated wastewater ponds | ccxcviii | ||
| 13.1\tINTRODUCTION | ccxcviii | ||
| 13.1.1\t\tHistorical development | ccxcix | ||
| 13.1.2 AIWPS implementation | ccc | ||
| 13.2\tADVANCED FACULTATIVE PONDS | cccii | ||
| 13.3\tHIGH RATE PONDS | ccciv | ||
| 13.3.1\t\tHRP operation | cccvii | ||
| Depth | cccvii | ||
| Paddlewheel mixing | cccviii | ||
| Discharge | cccviii | ||
| 13.4\tALGAE SETTLING POND | cccviii | ||
| 13.4.1\t\tASP operation | cccix | ||
| 13.5\tMATURATION POND | cccix | ||
| 13.6\tTREATMENT PERFORMANCE | cccx | ||
| 13.6.1\t\tLime Addition | cccxi | ||
| 13.6.2\t\tEffluent Disposal | cccxi | ||
| 13.7\t\tAIWPS COSTS | cccxi | ||
| 13.7.1\t\tCapital Costs | cccxi | ||
| Land costs | cccxii | ||
| Construction costs | cccxii | ||
| 13.7.2\t\tOperation and Maintenance Costs | cccxii | ||
| Sludge removal and disposal | cccxii | ||
| Power requirement | cccxiii | ||
| Personnel costs | cccxiii | ||
| 13.8\tADDITIONAL TREATMENT | cccxiv | ||
| 13.9\tRESOURCE RECOVERY | cccxiv | ||
| 13.9.1 Methane | cccxiv | ||
| 13.9.2 Algae Biomass | cccxv | ||
| 13.10\tUPGRADING CONVENTIONAL WSP'S | cccxv | ||
| 13.11\tTREATMENT OF OTHER WASTES | cccxvi | ||
| 13.12\tSUMMARY | cccxvi | ||
| 13.13\tFUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | cccxvii | ||
| AFPs | cccxvii | ||
| HRPs | cccxvii | ||
| ASPs | cccxvii | ||
| MPs | cccxvii | ||
| REFERENCES | cccxviii | ||
| 14.0 Pond(s) integrated with trickling filter and activated sludge processes | cccxxvii | ||
| 14.1 INTRODUCTION | cccxxvii | ||
| 14.2 ANAEROBIC POND(S)/TRICKLING HYBRID | cccxxviii | ||
| 14.2.1 Case study - Phola ponds/trickling filter hybrid plant (Mpumalanga province, South Africa) | cccxxx | ||
| 14.3\tPONDS/ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS HYBRID | cccxxx | ||
| 14.4\tPONDS FOLLOWED BY TRICKLING FILTER/ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS | cccxxxii | ||
| 14.4.1 Introduction to the PETRO concept | cccxxxii | ||
| 14.4.2\t\tBiological phenomena underlying PETRO | cccxxxiii | ||
| 14.4.3\t\tAlgae-rich inter-pond recirculation | cccxxxiv | ||
| 14.4.4\t\tSystem variants | cccxxxvii | ||
| PETRO trickling filter variant | cccxxxviii | ||
| PETRO activated sludge variant | cccxxxviii | ||
| PETRO Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) variant | cccxxxviii | ||
| 14.4.5\t\tRetrofit guidelines | cccxxxix | ||
| Upgrading conventional trickling filter plants | cccxl | ||
| Upgrading conventional WSP series | cccxl | ||
| 14.4.6\t\tDesign guidelines | cccxl | ||
| 14.4.7\t\tCapital and operational costs | cccxlii | ||
| 14.5 SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | cccxlii | ||
| REFERENCES | cccxliii | ||
| 15.0 Integrated pond/wetland systems | cccxliv | ||
| 15.1\tINTRODUCTION | cccxliv | ||
| 15.2\tCONSTRUCTED WETLANDS | cccxlv | ||
| 15.2.1\tTypes of constructed wetlands | cccxlv | ||
| Free water surface (FWS) | cccxlv | ||
| Vegetated sub-merged bed (VSB) | cccxlvi | ||
| Vertical flow (VF) | cccxlvii | ||
| 15.2.2\t\tVegetation | cccxlviii | ||
| 15.2.3\t\tTreatment mechanisms | cccl | ||
| Solids and organic matter removal mechanisms | cccl | ||
| Nutrient removal mechanisms | cccl | ||
| Pathogen removal mechanisms | cccli | ||
| 15.3\tAPPLICATION OF POND AND CW SYSTEMS | ccclii | ||
| 15.3.1\t\tDomestic wastewater treatment | ccclii | ||
| 15.3.2\t\tAgricultural/industrial wastewater treatment | cccliii | ||
| 15.4\tDESIGN CONSIDERATIONS | cccliii | ||
| 15.4.1\t\tProcess design criteria | cccliii | ||
| 15.4.2\t\tDesign example – free water surface wetland | ccclvi | ||
| Solution | ccclvii | ||
| 15.4.3\t\tResource recycling and reuse | ccclix | ||
| 15.5\tSUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | ccclix | ||
| REFERENCES | ccclix | ||
| 16.0 Integrated pond/aquaculture systems | ccclxii | ||
| 16.1 AQUACULTURE PONDS | ccclxii | ||
| 16.1.1\tTypes of aquaculture ponds | ccclxii | ||
| 16.1.2\t\tTreatment mechanisms | ccclxiii | ||
| 16.1.3\t\tFish species | ccclxiv | ||
| 16.1.4\t\tFish cultivation/stocking | ccclxv | ||
| 16.2\tAPPLICATIONS OF PONDS AND AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS | ccclxvi | ||
| 16.3\tDESIGN CONSIDERATIONS | ccclxviii | ||
| 16.3.1\t\tDesign example – aquaculture ponds | ccclxix | ||
| 16.3.2\t Resource recycling and reuse | ccclxx | ||
| 16.4\tSUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | ccclxxi | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | ccclxxi | ||
| REFERENCES | ccclxxi | ||
| 17.0 Wastewater reservoirs | ccclxxiii | ||
| 17.1\tINTRODUCTION | ccclxxiii | ||
| 17.1.1\t\tWhat are wastewater reservoirs? | ccclxxiii | ||
| 17.1.2\t Water demand for irrigation and the hydrological cycle | ccclxxiv | ||
| 17.1.3\t\tBasic concepts in designing wastewater reservoirs | ccclxxv | ||
| Non-steady-state reactors | ccclxxv | ||
| 17.2\tOPERATIONAL REGIMES AND WATER DEMAND | ccclxxvii | ||
| 17.3\tTHE ‘OLD’ CONTINUOUS-FLOW SINGLE RESERVOIR | ccclxxix | ||
| 17.3.1\t\tVolume and depth | ccclxxix | ||
| 17.3.2\t\tOutlet and inlet location | ccclxxx | ||
| 17.3.3\t\tThe hydraulics of the continuous-flow reservoirs | ccclxxxi | ||
| The mean residence time (MRT) | ccclxxxi | ||
| The percentage of fresh effluents (PFE) | ccclxxxii | ||
| MRT and PFE in continuous-flow reservoirs | ccclxxxiii | ||
| 17.3.4\tPerformance of continuous-flow reservoirs | ccclxxxiv | ||
| The removal of coliforms | ccclxxxvi | ||
| 17.4\tTHE ‘NEW’ BATCH RESERVOIRS | ccclxxxvii | ||
| 17.4.1\t\tA single batch reservoir | ccclxxxvii | ||
| 17.4.2\t\tSeveral reservoirs working in sequential batch | ccclxxxviii | ||
| 17.5\tORGANIC LOADING | ccclxxxviii | ||
| 17.5.1\t\tCalculating the surface organic loading | ccclxxxviii | ||
| 17.5.2\tMaximum surface organic loading | ccclxxxix | ||
| 17.5.3\t\tIncreasing the surface organic loading | cccxc | ||
| 17.5.4\t\tShocks of high organic loading | cccxc | ||
| 17.6\tTHE TOOLS FOR DESIGN | cccxci | ||
| 17.6.1\t\tThree complementary models | cccxci | ||
| 17.6.2\t\tPrior and post-treatment of effluents | cccxci | ||
| 17.7\tSUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | cccxcii | ||
| REFERENCES | cccxciv | ||
| 18.0 Cold and continental climated ponds | cccxcvii | ||
| 18.1\tINTRODUCTION | cccxcvii | ||
| 18.1.1\t\tHistory and development | cccxcvii | ||
| 18.1.2\tPond types and operating mode | cccxcviii | ||
| 18.2\tPROCESS DESIGN | cdi | ||
| 18.2.1\t\tDesign methods and equations | cdii | ||
| 18.3\tSPECIAL ASPECTS OF CONSTRUCTION | cdiv | ||
| 18.3.1\t\tConfiguration and orientation | cdiv | ||
| 18.3.2\t\tEarthworks and lining | cdv | ||
| 18.3.3\t\tHydraulics and pipework | cdv | ||
| 18.4\tOPERATION OF EXTREME CLIMATE PONDS | cdvi | ||
| 18.4.1\t\tSludge accumulation and disposal | cdvi | ||
| 18.4.2\t\tPond discharge | cdvii | ||
| 18.4.3\t\tMonitoring and maintenance | cdviii | ||
| 18.5\tPOND MICROBIOLOGY AND PATHOGEN REMOVAL | cdix | ||
| 18.5.1\t\tPond biology and microbial activity in cold WSPs | cdix | ||
| 18.5.2\t\tSurvival of pathogenic micro-organisms | cdx | ||
| 18.6\tMODIFICATIONS AND TRENDS IN DESIGN OF EXTREME CLIMATE PONDS | cdxi | ||
| 18.7\tCASE STUDIES | cdxii | ||
| 18.7.1\t\tWhitehorse, Yukon - continuing with WSPs | cdxii | ||
| 18.7.2\t\tStugun, Sweden - from WSPs to precipitation ponds | cdxv | ||
| 18.8\tFUTURE DIRECTIONS | cdxviii | ||
| REFERENCES | cdxix | ||
| 19.0 Ponds for livestock wastes | cdxxiv | ||
| 19.1\tINTRODUCTION | cdxxiv | ||
| 19.2\tCHARACTERISTICS OF LIVESTOCK WASTES AND WASTEWATERS | cdxxv | ||
| 19.2.1\t\tOxygen demand | cdxxv | ||
| 19.2.2\t\tSolids | cdxxvii | ||
| 19.2.3\t\tNutrients | cdxxviii | ||
| 19.2.4\t\tPathogens | cdxxix | ||
| 19.2.5\t\tOther contaminants | cdxxx | ||
| 19.2.6\t\tPhysico-chemical factors affecting pond treatment of livestock wastewaters | cdxxxi | ||
| 19.3\tLIVESTOCK POND DESIGN AND OPERATION | cdxxxii | ||
| 19.3.1\t\tAnaerobic ponds | cdxxxii | ||
| 19.3.2\t\tFacultative ponds | cdxxxiv | ||
| 19.3.3\t\tMechanically aerated ponds | cdxxxv | ||
| 19.3.4\t\tMaturation ponds | cdxxxvi | ||
| 19.3.5\t\tHigh rate pond systems | cdxxxvii | ||
| 19.4\tFARM DAIRY CASE STUDY – NEW ZEALAND | cdxxxviii | ||
| 19.4.1\t\tAnaerobic and facultative pond systems | cdxxxviii | ||
| 19.4.2\t\tMechanical aeration of facultative ponds | cdxxxix | ||
| 19.4.3\t\tAdvanced integrated ponds | cdxl | ||
| 19.4.4\t\tSupplementary wetland treatment | cdxlii | ||
| 19.5\tPIGGERY CASE STUDY | cdxlii | ||
| 19.5.1\t\tAnaerobic and facultative ponds | cdxlii | ||
| 19.6\tSUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | cdxliv | ||
| REFERENCES | cdxlv | ||
| 20.0 Stormwater management ponds | cdxlix | ||
| 20.1 INTRODUCTION | cdxlix | ||
| 20.2 STORMWATER POND PROCESSES | cdl | ||
| 20.2.1\t\tHydraulics | cdl | ||
| 20.2.2\t\tWater quality processes | cdlii | ||
| 20.2.3\t\tSediment settling | cdliv | ||
| 20.2.4\t Ecology | cdlv | ||
| 20.3\t\tPERFORMANCE OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PONDS | cdlvii | ||
| 20.3.1\t\tThe fate of the pollutants | cdlix | ||
| 20.4\tDESIGN OF STORMWATER DETENTION AND RETENTION PONDS | cdlx | ||
| 20.4.1\t\tVolume and depth | cdlx | ||
| 20.4.2\t\tStormwater retention ponds | cdlxiii | ||
| 20.4.3\t\tExtended detention stormwater basins (EDSBs) | cdlxv | ||
| 20.4.4\t\tDesign considerations for stormwater ponds and basins | cdlxvii | ||
| Land requirements | cdlxvii | ||
| Water balance | cdlxviii | ||
| Pollutant removal | cdlxviii | ||
| Aesthetics and multiple uses | cdlxviii | ||
| Permanent pool for stormwater retention ponds | cdlxix | ||
| Stormwater retention pond depth zones | cdlxix | ||
| Outlet works | cdlxix | ||
| Side slopes | cdlxx | ||
| Dam embankment | cdlxx | ||
| Inlet | cdlxx | ||
| Forebay design | cdlxx | ||
| Underdrains adjacent to stormwater ponds | cdlxxi | ||
| 20.5\tMAINTENANCE OF STORMWATER PONDS AND BASINS | cdlxxi | ||
| 20.6\t\tSUMMARY | cdlxxii | ||
| REFERENCES | cdlxxiii | ||
| Index | cdlxxvi |