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Book Details
Abstract
The observed concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in raw wastewater confirm that municipal wastewater represents the main disposal pathway for the PPCPs consumed in households, hospitals and industry. In sewage treatment plant effluents most PPCPs are still present, since many of these polar and persistent compounds are being removed only partially or, in some cases, not at all. Treated wastewater therefore represents an important point source for PPCPs into the environment. After passing a sewage treatment plant the treated wastewater is mostly discharged into rivers and streams or sometimes used to irrigate fields. If drinking water is produced using resources containing a substantial proportion of treated wastewater (e.g. from river water downstream of communities) the water cycle is closed and indirect potable reuse occurs.Â
Human Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Fragrances provides an overview of the occurrence, analytics, removal and environmental risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater, surface water and drinking water. The book covers all aspects of the fate and removal of PPCPs in the whole water cycle: consumption and occurrence, analytical methods, the legal background, environmental risk assessment, human and animal toxicology, source control options, wastewater and drinking water treatment as well as indirect reuse.Â
The book presents a summary of the results obtained during the EU project "Poseidon", combined with further expert knowledge on the field, and is written at a level appropriate for professionals involved in management of water resource quality. Professionals in the field including decision makers, engineers and scientists, as well as students entering the field, will find this an invaluable source of information. First comprehensive study on the assessment, fate and removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater and drinking water treatment. Emphasises the importance of micropollutants in the water cycle, provides methods for quantifying their fate and technologies for their removal.Â
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contents | vi | ||
| Foreword | xii | ||
| Acknowledgement | xiv | ||
| List of contributors | xvii | ||
| 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Urban water cycle | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Concerns of exposure to PPCPs | 2 | ||
| 1.3 Objectives of this book | 5 | ||
| 1.4 Target compounds: pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 6 | ||
| 1.5 Selected PPCPs | 8 | ||
| 1.6 Chapter contents | 8 | ||
| 2 Consumption and occurrence | 15 | ||
| 2.1 Consumption | 15 | ||
| 2.1.1 Pharmaceuticals | 15 | ||
| 2.1.2 Personal care products | 19 | ||
| 2.2 Excretion rates of selected pharmaceuticals | 20 | ||
| 2.3 Exposure routes of human-use pharmaceuticals and musk fragrances | 23 | ||
| 2.4 Occurrence in hospital and municipal wastewater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and sewage sludge | 25 | ||
| 2.4.1 Hospital wastewater | 25 | ||
| 2.4.2 Treated wastewater and surface water | 27 | ||
| 2.4.3 Groundwater | 35 | ||
| 2.4.4 Drinking water | 36 | ||
| 2.4.5 Sewage sludge | 36 | ||
| 2.5 Modelling of expected concentrations | 38 | ||
| 2.5.1 Prediction of pharmaceuticals concentration in raw municipal sewage | 39 | ||
| 2.5.2 Prediction of the pharmaceutical concentration in the STP effluent and surface water | 40 | ||
| 2.5.3 Example: comparison of PEC and MEC of ciprofloxacin in treated wastewater and surface water | 44 | ||
| 2.6 Conclusions | 45 | ||
| 3 Analytical methods | 55 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 55 | ||
| 3.2 Sampling | 57 | ||
| 3.3 Extraction and enrichment | 63 | ||
| 3.3.1 Solid samples | 63 | ||
| 3.3.2 Aqueous samples | 65 | ||
| 3.3.3 Clean-up | 71 | ||
| 3.4 Derivatization | 72 | ||
| 3.4.1 Acetylation | 72 | ||
| 3.4.2 Methylation | 72 | ||
| 3.4.3 Pentafluorobenzyl-derivatives | 73 | ||
| 3.4.4 Silylation | 73 | ||
| 3.5 Chromatography | 75 | ||
| 3.5.1 Gas chromatography | 75 | ||
| 3.5.2 High-performance liquid chromatography | 75 | ||
| 3.6 Mass spectrometry | 76 | ||
| 3.6.1 GC/MS | 76 | ||
| 3.6.2 LC/MS | 77 | ||
| 3.6.3 Mass Detection | 79 | ||
| 3.7 Quality assurance | 81 | ||
| 3.7.1 General aspects | 81 | ||
| 3.7.2 Example: estrogens in sludge and sediments | 86 | ||
| 3.8 Analytical methods | 86 | ||
| 3.8.1 Aqueous samples | 87 | ||
| 3.8.2 Sludge samples | 91 | ||
| 4a A brief overview on the legal background and the regulatory instruments of the environmental risk assessment for pharmaceuticals in the EU, USA, Japan, Australia and Canada | 107 | ||
| 4a.1 Introduction | 107 | ||
| 4a.2 Situation in the EU | 108 | ||
| 4a.2.1 Legal requirements | 108 | ||
| 4a.2.2 Guidelines | 109 | ||
| 4a.3 Situation in the USA | 111 | ||
| 4a.3.1 Legal requirements | 111 | ||
| 4a.3.2 Guidelines | 113 | ||
| 4a.4 Situation in Japan | 114 | ||
| 4a.4.1 Legal requirements | 114 | ||
| 4a.4.2 Guidelines | 114 | ||
| 4a.5 Situation in Australia | 114 | ||
| 4a.5.1 Legal requirements | 114 | ||
| 4a.5.2 Guidelines | 115 | ||
| 4a.6 Situation in Canada | 115 | ||
| 4a.6.1 Legal requirements | 115 | ||
| 4a.6.2 Guidelines | 115 | ||
| 4a.7 Harmonisation of data between regions | 116 | ||
| 4a.8 Conclusions | 116 | ||
| 4b Environmental risk assessment | 121 | ||
| 4b.1 Introduction | 121 | ||
| 4b.2 Methods and performance of environmental risk assessment | 125 | ||
| 4b.2.1 Hazard assessment | 125 | ||
| 4b.2.2 Exposure assessment | 125 | ||
| 4b.2.3 Effects assessment | 132 | ||
| 4b.2.4 Risk characterisation | 135 | ||
| 4b.2.5 Summary of environmental risk assessments for the selected PPCPs according to EMEA | 141 | ||
| 4b.2.6 Considerations on the EMEA Risk Assessment Scheme | 142 | ||
| 4b.3 Conclusions | 143 | ||
| 5 Human and animal toxicology of some water-borne pharmaceuticals | 149 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 149 | ||
| 5.2 Pharmaceuticals as environmental contaminants: classes, concentrations and chemical stability | 152 | ||
| 5.3 Estrogens and estrogen-mimicking compounds | 155 | ||
| 5.3.1 Estrogens and related steroids | 155 | ||
| 5.3.2 Xeno-estrogens (endocrine disrupters) | 157 | ||
| 5.4 Anti-infective agents | 164 | ||
| 5.4.1 Sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines | 164 | ||
| 5.4.2 Fluoroquinolones | 167 | ||
| 5.4.3 Fenicoles | 169 | ||
| 5.4.4 Macrolides and related drugs | 170 | ||
| 5.4.5 Tetracyclines | 171 | ||
| 5.4.6 Nitroimidazoles | 173 | ||
| 5.4.7 Betalactam antibiotics | 174 | ||
| 5.4.8 Aminoglycosides | 176 | ||
| 5.5 Antineoplastic drugs | 177 | ||
| 5.6 Radioopaques (contrast media) | 180 | ||
| 5.7 Anticonvulsants | 181 | ||
| 5.8 Adrenergic agents | 182 | ||
| 5.9 Discussion | 184 | ||
| 5.10 Prophylactic measures for risk minimization | 186 | ||
| 5.11 Outlook | 187 | ||
| 5.12 Appendix: Details on the pharmacology, toxicology and pharmacokinetics of cited drugs | 188 | ||
| 5.12.1 Estrogens | 188 | ||
| 5.12.2 Sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines | 192 | ||
| 5.12.3 Fluoroquinolones | 196 | ||
| 5.12.4 Fenicoles | 200 | ||
| 5.12.5 Macrolides and related drugs | 203 | ||
| 5.12.6 Tetracyclines | 206 | ||
| 5.12.7 Nitroimidazoles | 209 | ||
| 5.12.8 Betalactam antibiotics | 211 | ||
| 5.12.9 Aminoglycosides | 213 | ||
| 5.12.10 Antineoplastic drugs | 215 | ||
| 5.12.11 Radioopaques (contrast media) | 219 | ||
| 5.12.12 Anticonvulsants | 223 | ||
| 5.12.13 Adrenergic agents | 229 | ||
| 5.13 Databases and textbooks | 234 | ||
| 6 Wastewater treatment | 243 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 243 | ||
| 6.2 PPCP removal mechanisms | 246 | ||
| 6.2.1 Sorption onto sludge | 246 | ||
| 6.2.2 Stripping | 251 | ||
| 6.2.3 Biologic transformation | 253 | ||
| 6.3 PPCP removal in complete systems | 261 | ||
| 6.3.1 Complete systems: sampling and mass balances | 261 | ||
| 6.3.2 Modelling removal in complete systems | 266 | ||
| 6.3.3 Observed removal in complete systems | 272 | ||
| 6.3.4 Biological activity in flocculation filtration | 276 | ||
| 6.3.5 Anaerobic digestion of sludge | 278 | ||
| 6.3.6 Options for improving removal | 279 | ||
| 6.4 Loss of wastewater in the sewer system | 280 | ||
| 6.4.1 Combined sewer overflow (CSO) | 281 | ||
| 6.4.2 Sewer exfiltration | 281 | ||
| 6.5 Advanced treatment | 282 | ||
| 6.5.1 Ozone | 282 | ||
| 6.5.2 Advanced oxidation processes (AOP) | 286 | ||
| 6.5.3 Tight membrane filtration | 287 | ||
| 6.5.4 Activated carbon | 287 | ||
| 6.6 Conclusions | 288 | ||
| 7 Removal of PPCP during drinking water treatment | 293 | ||
| 7.1 Drinking water regulations | 293 | ||
| 7.2 Multibarrier systems for drinking water production | 295 | ||
| 7.2.1 Water resources | 295 | ||
| 7.2.2 Treatment processes for the removal of micropollutants | 296 | ||
| 7.3 Physico-chemical constants: A tool to assess the removal efficiency for pharmaceuticals | 297 | ||
| 7.3.1 Oxidation of pharmaceuticals | 299 | ||
| 7.3.2 Adsorption of pharmaceuticals on activated carbon | 308 | ||
| 7.4 Assessment of unit processes for the reduction of pharmaceutical concentrations | 312 | ||
| 7.4.1 Bank filtration | 312 | ||
| 7.4.2 Coagulation/flocculation | 313 | ||
| 7.4.3 GAC or PAC processes | 313 | ||
| 7.4.4 Membrane processes | 314 | ||
| 7.5 Full-scale treatment | 316 | ||
| 7.5.1 Evaluation of the treatment processes in full-scale waterworks | 316 | ||
| 7.5.2 Conclusions | 318 | ||
| 7.6 General summary | 319 | ||
| 8 Indirect potable water reuse | 323 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 323 | ||
| 8.1.1 Role of potable water reuse | 324 | ||
| 8.1.2 Water quality concerns of potable water reuse | 326 | ||
| 8.1.3 Main objectives and outcomes of POSEIDON project in the field of water reuse | 328 | ||
| 8.2 Water quality requirements and existing guidelines for planned indirect potable reuse | 328 | ||
| 8.3 Treatment requirements and case studies of planned indirect potable water reuse | 329 | ||
| 8.3.1 Experience in the USA | 332 | ||
| 8.3.2 Experience in Europe | 332 | ||
| 8.3.3 Case studies of the EU project POSEIDON | 334 | ||
| 8.4 PPCPs as anthropogenic tracers in groundwater | 339 | ||
| 8.5 Management tools for indirect potable reuse | 341 | ||
| 8.5.1 Strategy for planned indirect potable reuse of wastewater with the emphasis on PPCP removal | 342 | ||
| 9 Source control, source separation | 353 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 353 | ||
| 9.2 Source control | 355 | ||
| 9.2.1 Environmental classification of pharmaceuticals | 356 | ||
| 9.2.2 Ecolabel | 362 | ||
| 9.2.3 Targeted therapy instead of prophylactic or empiric consumption of medicine | 369 | ||
| 9.3 Source separation | 373 | ||
| 9.3.1 Industry, hospitals and nursing homes: on site treatment | 373 | ||
| 9.3.2 Urine source separation | 375 | ||
| 9.3.3 Disposal of unused pharmaceuticals | 376 | ||
| 9.4 Conclusions | 377 | ||
| 10 Conclusions and outlook | 385 | ||
| 10.1 Conclusions | 385 | ||
| 10.2 Outlook | 391 | ||
| Annex | 393 | ||
| A.1 Abbreviations used in the chapters | 393 | ||
| A.2 Variables and symbols | 395 | ||
| A.3 Units | 396 | ||
| A.4 Glossary | 397 | ||
| A.5 List of compounds | 406 | ||
| Index | 443 |