Water Reuse

Blanca Jimenez; Takashi Asano; Bryan Ellis; Jean-Luc Bertrand-Krajewski; Chris Binnie; Martin Kimber

BOOK

Water Reuse

(2008)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-188-1
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 650
Subjects: The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

Water Reuse: An International Survey of current practice, issues and needs examines water reuse practices around the world from different perspectives. The objective is to show how differently wastewater reuse is conceived and practised around the world as well as to present the varied needs and possibilities for reusing wastewater. In the first section water reuse practices around the world are described for regions having common water availability, reuse needs and social aspects.
The second section refers to the “stakeholders” point of view. Each reuse purpose demands different water quality, not only to protect health and the environment but also to fulfil the requirements of the specific reuse. Reuses considered are agricultural, urban agriculture as a special case of the former, municipal and industrial. Alongside these uses, the indirect reuse for human consumption through aquifer recharge is also discussed. The third section deals with emerging and controversial topics. Ethical and economical dilemmas in the field are presented as a subject not frequently addressed in this field. The role of governments in respect of public policy in reuse is discussed as well as the different international criteria and standards for reusing wastewater. The importance of public acceptance and the way to properly handle it is also considered.
The fourth section of the book presents contrasting case studies; typical situations in the developed world (Japan and Germany) are compared to those in developing countries (Pakistan and Brazil) for agricultural and industrial reuse. Indirect planned reuse for human consumption (Germany) is compared with an unplanned one (Mexico). The Windhoek, Namibia case study is presented to emphasize why if the direct reuse of wastewater for human consumption has been performed with success for more than 35 years it is still the only example of this type around the world. To illustrate the difficulties of having a common framework for regulating water reuse in several countries, the Mediterranean situation is described. Other case studies presented refer to the reuse situation in Israel, Spain, Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam, these latter countries being located in water rich areas.
This book will be an invaluable information source for all those concerned with water reuse including water utility managers, wastewater policy makers and water resources planners as well as researchers and students in environmental engineering, water resources planning and sanitary engineering.
Scientific and Technical Report No. 20

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Contents	6
List of Contributors	9
Introduction	14
SECTION ONE: A WORLD OVERVIEW	18
Chapter 1: Water reclamation and reuse around the world	20
1.1 INTRODUCTION	20
1.2 DEFINITIONS	20
1.3 THRESHOLDS ON WATER AVAILABILITY	22
1.4 WORLD SITUATION	22
1.4.1 Water availability	22
1.4.2 Water reuse	25
1.4.3 Main wastewater reuse drivers	33
1.4.4 Main countries reusing wastewater	34
1.4.5 Agricultural reuse	37
1.4.6 Municipal reuse	40
1.4.7 Industrial reuse	41
1.4.8 Legislation	41
1.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS	42
1.6 REFERENCES	42
Chapter 2: Water reuse in Middle Eastern and North African countries	44
2.1 INTRODUCTION	44
2.2 THE MIDDLE EASTERN AND NORTH AFRICAN REGION	45
2.3 THE REUSE CONDITIONS	50
2.3.1 Driving forces, benefits and concerns of water reuse	50
2.3.2 The current state and significance of water reuse in the region	51
2.3.3 Technologies for the treatment, storage and application of wastewater	53
2.3.4 Water reuse in the Middle Eastern and North African region	54
2.3.5 Acceptance of water reuse and public awareness	55
2.3.6 The institutional framework	56
2.3.7 The existing water reuse regulations	57
2.3.8 Economics of water reuse	61
2.3.9 Financing wastewater treatment and reuse	61
2.4 CONCLUSION	62
2.5 REFERENCES	63
Chapter 3: Water reuse in the Northern Mediterranean Region	65
3.1 INTRODUCTION	65
3.2 GENERAL SITUATION	66
3.2.1 Climate	66
3.2.2 Water resources	66
3.2.3 Regulations	67
3.2.4 Wastewater Reuse practice: today	67
3.2.5 Wastewater Reuse practice: future perspectives	67
3.3 COUNTRY INFORMATION	69
3.3.1 Italy	69
Water resources	69
Management of water resources	69
Sewage treatment	70
Regulations	70
Reuse practice	71
3.3.2 France	72
Water resources	72
Sewage treatment	72
Regulations	72
Reuse practice	73
3.3.3 Spain	73
3.3.4 Israel	75
3.3.5 Cyprus	76
Water resources	76
Management of water resources	76
Sewage treatment	77
Regulations	78
Reuse practice	78
3.3.6 Turkey	78
Water resources and demand	78
Sewage treatment	79
SECTION TWO: STAKEHOLDERS’ POINTS OF VIEW	214
Chapter 10: Water reuse practices for agriculture	216
10.1 INTRODUCTION	216
10.2 RECYCLED WATER AS A VIABLE WATER RESOURCE	219
10.2.1 Classification of water reuse applications in agriculture	219
10.2.2 Major water reuse developments in agriculture	221
10.2.3 Assessment of the feasibility of irrigation with recycled water	222
10.2.4 Water quality requirements	222
Pathogens	222
Chemicals	226
Salinity	226
Toxic ions	226
Trace elements	227
Nutrients	227
10.3 HEALTH PROTECTION MEASURES	228
10.3.1 Policy, regulations and institutional initiatives	229
Water reuse regulations	229
Crop restrictions	230
Human exposure control and immunisation	230
10.3.2 Engineering practices for health protection	231
Wastewater Treatment	231
Control of water application: selection of irrigation method	234
10.3.3 Agronomic practices for health protection	236
Crop selection	236
Control of water application: timing of irrigation	236
Harvesting measures	236
10.4 GOOD AGRONOMIC PRACTICES	236
10.4.1 Crop selection and management	238
10.4.2 Selection of irrigation method	238
10.4.3 Management of water application	240
10.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WATER REUSE IN AGRICULTURE	240
10.6 CONCLUSIONS	243
10.7 REFERENCES	243
Chapter 11: Wastewater irrigation in urban agriculture	245
11.1 INTRODUCTION	245
11.2 URBAN AGRICULTURE	246
11.3 CONSTRAINTS ON URBAN AGRICULTURE	248
11.4 URBAN AGRICULTURE AND WASTEWATER USE	249
11.5 BUILDING MARKETS FOR WASTEWATER: CONVINCING POLICY MAKERS	250
11.6 SHIFTING SCALE: ADDRESSING THE NEEDS OF SMALL FARMERS	252
11.7 TOWARDS A MORE RESPONSIVE POLICY	253
11.7.1 National level policy considerations	253
11.7.2 Municipal level policy considerations (UA oriented)	254
11.8 CONCLUSIONS	254
11.9 REFERENCES	256
Chapter 12: Municipal water reuse	258
12.1 INTRODUCTION	258
12.2 MUNICIPAL WATER REUSE AND INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT	258
12.3 MUNICIPAL REUSE APPLICATIONS	259
12.4 MUNICIPAL REUSE CASE STUDIES	259
12.4.1 Public facility applications	259
12.4.2 Municipal services	260
12.4.3 Environmental reuse applications	261
12.5 System management and operation	262
12.5.1 General	262
12.5.2 Recycled water quality	262
12.5.3 Water reclamation plant operation	262
12.5.4 Storage and distribution of recycled water	263
12.5.5 System management and quality control	264
12.6 CONCLUSIONS	265
12.7 REFERENCES	265
Chapter 13: Current practices of water reuse in industry	267
13.1 INTRODUCTION	267
13.2 POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE	268
13.3 MAIN INDUSTRIES FOR WATER REUSE	268
13.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY	270
13.4.1 Membrane bioreactor for industrial reuse	270
13.4.2 Wafer fabrication (Singapore)	271
13.4.3 Steel industry (South Korea)	271
13.4.4 Aluminium can manufacturer (USA)	272
13.4.5 Precision Glass (South Korea)	272
13.4.6 Refinery (Australia)	273
13.4.7 Power station (Boiler feed water, Hungary)	273
13.4.8 Piggery Farm, Victoria, Australia (UNEP, 1994)	274
13.5 CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY	275
REFERENCES	276
Chapter 14: Water reuse via aquifer recharge: intentional and unintentional practices	277
14.1 INTRODUCTION	277
14.2 AQUIFER PROPERTIES THAT INFLUENCE RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS	278
14.3 INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS	279
14.4 EXAMPLES OF INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS	281
14.5 UNINTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS	287
14.6 CONCLUSIONS	291
14.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	291
14.8 REFERENCES	292
SECTION THREE: EMERGING TOPICS	296
Chapter 15: Ethical dilemmas in water recycling	298
15.1 INTRODUCTION	298
15.2 ECONOMIC BOTTOM LINE	299
15.3 ENVIRONMENTAL BOTTOM LINE	303
15.4 SOCIAL BOTTOM LINE	306
15.4.1 Communication and stakeholder input	306
15.4.2 Water quality	308
15.4.3 Religious, cultural and aesthetic values	311
15.5 REFERENCES	314
Chapter 16: The economic dilemmas of water management and reuse	316
16.1 INTRODUCTION	316
16.2 WATER PRICING ARRANGEMENTS	318
16.2.1 Setting Charges through Administrative Processes	319
16.2.2 Setting Prices through Market Mechanisms	321
16.3 THE ECONOMIC DILEMMAS	322
16.3.1 Supply side - Economies of Scale	322
16.3.2 Supply Side - Risk	323
16.3.3 Supply side - Distortions of Past subsidies	323
16.3.4 Supply side - Externalities	324
16.3.5 Supply Side - Institutional impediments	325
16.3.6 Demand side - Social impediments	325
16.3.7 Demand side – mis-match of conditions	326
16.4 CASE STUDIES OF WATER REUSE	327
16.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS	330
16.6 REFERENCES	330
Chapter 17: Public policy and institutional capacity building: opportunities for innovation in recycling	333
17.1 INTRODUCTION	333
17.2 ACCESS TO WATER	334
17.3 PROCESSES TO BE MANAGED	336
17.4 THE CHANGING POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER	338
17.4.1 Jurisdictional collaboration	338
17.4.2 Title – the concept of “ownership” of water	339
17.4.3 Impact of competition policy	341
17.4.4 Costing and pricing	343
17.4.5 Recycled water for the environment	345
17.5 COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS	345
17.6 CONCLUSION	346
17.7 REFERENCES	347
Chapter 18: Public acceptance of water reuse	349
18.1 INTRODUCTION	349
18.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS	350
18.2.1 Previous research	350
18.2.2 Recycled water risks	350
18.2.3 Disgust – the “yuck” factor	352
18.2.4 Recycled water uses	352
18.2.5 Sources of recycled water	352
18.2.6 The issue of choice	353
18.2.7 Trust in authorities and scientific knowledge	353
18.2.8 Attitudes towards the environment	354
18.2.9 Environmental justice issues	355
18.2.10 Socio-demographic factors	355
18.2.11 Cost of recycled water	356
18.3 CONSULTATION	356
18.3.1 Community consultation approaches	356
18.3.2 Identifying stakeholders	357
18.3.3 Involving the community in projects	358
Communication and outreach methods	358
18.3.4 Communicating about risks	359
Hazard and outrage	359
Improving dialogues with communities	360
18.3.5 Identifying and dealing with issues	361
Identifying issues	361
Evaluating issues	361
Resolving conflict	361
18.4 COMMUNITY EDUCATION	362
18.5 CASE STUDIES	362
18.5.1 Urban reuse	362
18.5.2 Agricultural reuse	363
18.5.3 Indirect reuse	364
18.6 DISCUSSION	364
18.7 CONCLUSIONS	365
18.8 REFERENCES	365
Chapter 19: Water reuse criteria: environmental and health risk based standards and guidelines	368
19.1 INTRODUCTION	368
19.2 WATER REUSE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH	370
19.2.1 Pathogens	370
19.2.2 Heavy metals	371
19.2.3 Nutrients	372
19.2.4 Salinity	372
19.2.5 Organic matter	373
19.2.6 Toxic organic compounds	373
19.2.7 Endocrine disrupting substances and pharmaceutical residues	373
19.2.8 Application of greywater use	373
19.3 INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL REGULATIONS	374
19.4 APPLICATION OF REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION	377
19.5 WATER REUSE, WATER SCARCITY AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES	381
19.6 CONCLUSIONS	383
19.7 REFERENCES	384
SECTION FOUR: CASE STUDIES	388
Chapter 20: Water reuse in Japan	390
20.1 MAIN TYPES OF WATER REUSE IN JAPAN	390
20.1.1 Municipal water reuse	390
20.1.2 Wastewater reuse schemes	391
a) Individual building/block-wide wastewater reuse systems	391
b) Large-scale wastewater reuse system	392
c) Wastewater reuse for in-stream flow augmentation	392
20.1.3 Reclaimed water quality criteria	393
20.2 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE IN TOKYO: APPLICATION OF THE NEWLY DEVELOPED OZONE-RESISTANT MF MEMBRANE FOR WASTEWATER REUSE	393
20.2.1 The current status of wastewater reuse in Tokyo (Sone, 2004)	393
20.2.2 Development of a new wastewater reclamation system	394
(1) The new wastewater reclamation system	394
(2) Features of MF membrane	394
(3) Pilot plant study	395
(4)Cost estimates	396
(5) Application of the new reclamation system at a wastewater treatment plant	396
20.3 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE FOR NON-POTABLE PURPOSES IN FUKUOKA CITY	397
20.4 LARGE-AREA WASTEWATER REUSE FOR MELTING SNOW IN SAPPORO CITY (FUNAMIZU ET AL., 2001)	397
20.5 INDIVIDUAL BUILDING WASTEWATER REUSE SYSTEMS	399
20.5.1 An example of individual building wastewater reuse	399
20.5.2 Demand for reclaimed water and production of wastewater in buildings	400
(1)Reclaimed water demand in a building	400
(2)Wastewater production from several appliances in a building	400
20.5.3 Examples of treatment system for individual building recycling	401
(1)Treatment process of lower loaded graywater	401
(2)Treatment process of higher loaded graywater	402
(3)Treatment process of wastewater from a cooling tower	402
(4)Treatment system of other wastewater	403
20.6 REFERENCES	403
Acknowledgement	403
Chapter 21: Livelihoods from wastewater: water reuse in Faisalabad, Pakistan	404
21.1 INTRODUCTION	404
21.2 FAISALABAD-CITY	405
21.3 WATER QUALITY	405
21.4 FARMER CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEPTIONS OF WASTEWATER USE	406
21.5 HEALTH IMPACTS	409
21.6 WATER APPLICATIONS	409
21.7 NUTRIENT APPLICATIONS	410
21.8 SOIL QUALITY	411
21.9 CROP QUALITY	414
21.10 GROUNDWATER	415
21.11 CONCLUSION	415
21.12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT	416
21.13 REFERENCES	416
Chapter 22: Indirect water reuse for human consumption in Germany: the case of Berlin	418
22.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES	418
22.2 METHODS	420
22.2.1 Field site	420
22.2.2 Column system	422
22.2.3 Analytics	423
22.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION	423
22.3.1 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)	423
22.3.2 LC-OCD	425
22.3.3 Adsorbable organic iodine (AOI)	426
22.3.4 Trace pollutants	427
22.4 CONCLUSIONS	429
22.5 REFERENCES	429
Chapter 23: Unplanned reuse of wastewater for human consumption: The Tula Valley, Mexico	431
23.1 INTRODUCTION	431
23.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM	432
23.3 STUDY AREA	432
23.3.1 Development of the irrigation area	433
23.3.2 Groundwater	434
23.3.3 Hydrology	435
23.4 DRINKING WATER QUALITY	437
23.5 WATER QUALITY IN THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER	440
23.5.1 Comparison with wastewater	441
23.5.2 Comparison with Mexico City´s water supply	443
23.5.3 Comparison with a secondary effluent	444
23.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS	445
23.6.1 New ecosystems	446
23.7 Water potabilization	447
23.8 USE OF THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER TO SUPPLY MEXICO CITY’S WATER SUPPLY	448
23.9 CONCLUSIONS	448
23.10 REFERENCES	449
Chapter 24: Water reuse in Windhoek, Namibia: 40 years and still the only case of direct water reuse for human consumption	451
24.1 INTRODUCTION	451
24.2 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SOURCES IN WINDHOEK	452
24.3 FUTURE WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION TO WINDHOEK	455
24.4 VARIOUS PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FROM 1968 TO 1995	455
24.5 PROCESS DESIGN FOR THE NEW GOREANGAB WATER RECLAMATION PLANT	456
24.5.1 Summary	457
24.5.2 Raw water quality profile	457
24.5.3 Determination of treatment objectives	458
24.5.4 The multiple-barrier concept	459
24.5.5 Experiments and pilot studies to determine process design criteria	461
24.5.6 Selection of final process train	462
24.6 OPERATION, WATER QUALITY AND COMPARATIVE COSTS OF THE NEW PLANT	463
24.6.1 Operational experience to date	463
24.6.2 Water quality and monitoring	463
24.6.3 Quality concerns with the present process configuration	464
24.6.4 Cost considerations	465
24.7 PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF DIRECT POTABLE REUSE	465
24.7.1 Historic reasons for acceptance	466
24.7.2 Acceptance of the latest increased production	467
24.8 NEW RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS	468
24.8.1 Process related refinements	468
24.8.2 Quality control	469
24.8.3 Health	469
24.9 CONCLUSION	469
24.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	470
24.11 REFERENCES	470
Chapter 25: Industrial water resource management and recycling in Germany: case studies from the food and beverage industry	472
25.1 INTRODUCTION	472
25.2 IN-PLANT MEASURES AND INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION TO REDUCE WATER VOLUMES FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES	473
25.3 IN-PLANT MEASURES	474
25.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY DURING REUTILISATION AND RECIRCULATION	475
25.5 EXAMPLES FROM DIFFERENT GERMAN INDUSTRIES	475
25.5.1 Sugar industry	476
25.5.2 Malting industry (Ahrens 1998)	476
25.5.3 Beverage industry (ATV Handbuch Industrieabwasser 2000)	477
25.5.4 Agrar Bio Recycling GmbH in Wietzendorf (Theilen and Richter 2005)	478
Description of the treatment plant in 2002	478
Consequences of changes during the 2002/2003 campaign	480
Conclusions and results for the business and industry	481
25.5.5 Economy of water re-cycling	482
25.6 CONCLUSION	482
25.7 REFERENCES	483
Chapter 26: A new paradigm for urban water management and how industry is coping with it	484
26.1 THE NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM	484
26.2 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION FEASIBILITY	488
26.2.1 Public supply and natural sources	488
26.2.2 Buying reclaimed water from public supplies	489
26.2.3 Reclaiming and reusing its own effluents	491
Demand management	492
Water supply management	492
26.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE IN BRAZIL AND IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO	493
26.4 REUSE AS A TOOL TO ATTENUATE INDUSTRIAL WATER CHARGES IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO	494
26.5 THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTER ON WATER REUSE (IRCWR/CIRRA) TO SUPPORT THE PRACTICE OF WATER CONSERVATION AND REUSE IN BRAZIL	497
26.6 CONCLUSIONS	497
26.7 REFERENCES	498
Chapter 27: Israel as a case study	500
27.1 INTRODUCTION	500
27.1.1 Geography and climate	500
27.1.2 Water resources and demand	500
27.1.3 Sewage as a water resource – the strategic decision	501
27.1.4 The typical farmer in Israel	501
27.2 CHRONOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENTS	501
27.2.1 The seventies	504
27.2.2 The eighties	504
27.2.3 The nineties	504
27.2.4 Present situation	505
27.3 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES	507
27.3.1 Institutional organization	507
27.3.2 Is 75% reuse the limit?	508
27.3.3 Nutrients in wastewater are not accounted for by farmers	508
27.3.4 The contractual relationship between urban and rural sectors	508
27.3.5 The use of wastewater storage reservoirs as treatment units	509
27.3.6 Guidelines on wastewater treatment for agricultural irrigation	510
27.3.7 Salination of soils and aquifers - a threat to sustainability	510
27.4 SUMMARY: WHAT CAN BE LEARNED FROM THE ISRAELI EXPERIENCE	516
27.5 REFERENCES	517
Chapter 28: Economic analysis of wastewater reuse projects: A methodology for private reuse and public reuse cases	520
28.1 INTRODUCTION	520
28.2 METHODOLOGY	521
28.3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE REUSE OF RECLAIMED WASTEWATER – A CASE STUDY	523
28.3.1 Wastewater reuse in Spain	523
28.3.2 Objective	524
28.3.3 Location	524
Terrassa	524
Empuriabrava	525
28.3.4 Technical description	525
28.3.5 Materials and methods	525
28.3.5.1 Materials	525
28.3.5.2 Methods	526
28.3.6 Project Impacts	526
28.3.7 Financial requirements	528
28.3.8 Income	528
Terrassa	529
Empuriabrava	529
28.3.9 Costs	529
a) Infrastructure (private costs)	529
b) Use of water resources	530
28.3.10 Results and discussion	530
28.4 CONCLUSIONS	530
28.4.1 Economic policy proposals	531
28.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	531
28.6 REFERENCES	531
Chapter 29: Wastewater reclamation and reuse in Spain	533
29.1 INTRODUCTION	533
29.2 CASE STUDIES	534
29.2.1 Canary Islands	534
29.2.2 Catalonia	535
29.2.3 Costa del Sol (Málaga)	535
29.2.4 Madrid	535
29.2.5 Valencia and Murcia	536
29.2.6 Vitoria	536
29.3 CONCLUSIONS	536
29.3 REFERENCES	537
Chapter 30: Trying to set a common framework to rule water reuse in the Mediterranean region	538
30.1 INTRODUCTION	538
30.2 BENCHMARK STANDARDS	540
30.2.1 California water reuse standards	540
30.2.2 WHO water reuse guidelines	543
30.2.3 Comments	545
30.3 PROPOSAL FOR MEDITERRANEAN WATER REUSE GUIDELINES	545
30.3.1 Principles	545
30.3.2 Foremost health risks	546
30.3.3 Criteria	547
30.3.4 Categories of reuse applications and water quality	547
30.3.5 Guidelines	548
Water Category I	548
Bacterial criterion	548
Nematode egg criterion	550
TSS criterion	550
Minimum treatment recommended	550
Water category II	550
Bacterial criterion	551
Nematode egg criterion	554
TSS criterion	554
Minimum treatment recommended	554
Water category III	554
Bacterial criterion	554
Nematode egg criterion	555
TSS criterion	555
Minimum treatment recommended	555
Category IV	555
Microbial criteria	555
TSS criterion and treatment recommended	555
30.4 TOWARDS MORE SCIENTIFICALLY-BASED REGULATIONS?	555
30.4.1 Harmonisation of health-based guidelines	556
30.4.2 Deterministic approach for setting health-based targets	556
Verification monitoring	557
30.4.3 Limits of the deterministic approach	557
30.5 CONCLUSIONS	558
30.6 REFERENCES	558
Chapter 31: Wastewater use in high rainfall riverine cities: comparisons from Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam	561
31.1 INTRODUCTION	561
31.2 THE AFRICAN CASE	563
31.2.1 Yaounde, Cameroon	563
31.3 THE ASIAN CASES	563
31.3.1 Kathmandu Valley, Nepal	563
31.3.2 Hanoi, Vietnam	564
31.4 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING	564
31.4.1 The urban environment: impacts of poor sanitation and wastewater management	564
31.4.2 Impacts of industrial development	565
31.4.3 Wastewater disposal point, and quality of water bodies	566
31.4.4 Profile of Wastewater agriculture	566
31.4.5 Location of sites, sources and field application of wastewater	567
31.4.6 Crop production systems and land tenure	568
31.4.7 Gender and social diversity of users and related impacts	570
31.4.8 Preferences and perceptions of users	571
31.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS	572
31.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	573
31.7 REFERENCES	574
Chapter 32: Case Studies in Middle Eastern and North African countries	575
32.1 ALGERIA	575
32.2 BAHRAIN	576
32.3 EGYPT	576
32.4 IRAN	578
32.5 IRAQ	579
32.6 JORDAN	580
32.7 KUWAIT	584
32.8 LIBYA	586
32.9 MOROCCO	587
32.10 OMAN	589
32.11 PALESTINE	591
32.12 QATAR	593
32.13 SAUDI ARABIA	594
32.14 SYRIA	596
32.15 TUNISIA	598
32.16 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES	601
32.17 YEMEN	603
32.18 REFERENCES	605
Annex 1: Water Availability and Water Intensity Use index for different Countries	610
Annex 2: Agricultural irrigation: surface irrigated and volume used	616
REFERENCES	618
Index	620

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