BOOK
Water Reuse
Blanca Jimenez | Takashi Asano | Bryan Ellis | Jean-Luc Bertrand-Krajewski | Chris Binnie | Martin Kimber
(2008)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Water Reuse: An International Survey of current practice, issues and needs examines water reuse practices around the world from different perspectives. The objective is to show how differently wastewater reuse is conceived and practised around the world as well as to present the varied needs and possibilities for reusing wastewater. In the first section water reuse practices around the world are described for regions having common water availability, reuse needs and social aspects.
The second section refers to the “stakeholders” point of view. Each reuse purpose demands different water quality, not only to protect health and the environment but also to fulfil the requirements of the specific reuse. Reuses considered are agricultural, urban agriculture as a special case of the former, municipal and industrial. Alongside these uses, the indirect reuse for human consumption through aquifer recharge is also discussed. The third section deals with emerging and controversial topics. Ethical and economical dilemmas in the field are presented as a subject not frequently addressed in this field. The role of governments in respect of public policy in reuse is discussed as well as the different international criteria and standards for reusing wastewater. The importance of public acceptance and the way to properly handle it is also considered.
The fourth section of the book presents contrasting case studies; typical situations in the developed world (Japan and Germany) are compared to those in developing countries (Pakistan and Brazil) for agricultural and industrial reuse. Indirect planned reuse for human consumption (Germany) is compared with an unplanned one (Mexico). The Windhoek, Namibia case study is presented to emphasize why if the direct reuse of wastewater for human consumption has been performed with success for more than 35 years it is still the only example of this type around the world. To illustrate the difficulties of having a common framework for regulating water reuse in several countries, the Mediterranean situation is described. Other case studies presented refer to the reuse situation in Israel, Spain, Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam, these latter countries being located in water rich areas.
This book will be an invaluable information source for all those concerned with water reuse including water utility managers, wastewater policy makers and water resources planners as well as researchers and students in environmental engineering, water resources planning and sanitary engineering.
Scientific and Technical Report No. 20
Table of Contents
Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
---|---|---|---|
Contents | 6 | ||
List of Contributors | 9 | ||
Introduction | 14 | ||
SECTION ONE: A WORLD OVERVIEW | 18 | ||
Chapter 1: Water reclamation and reuse around the world | 20 | ||
1.1 INTRODUCTION | 20 | ||
1.2 DEFINITIONS | 20 | ||
1.3 THRESHOLDS ON WATER AVAILABILITY | 22 | ||
1.4 WORLD SITUATION | 22 | ||
1.4.1 Water availability | 22 | ||
1.4.2 Water reuse | 25 | ||
1.4.3 Main wastewater reuse drivers | 33 | ||
1.4.4 Main countries reusing wastewater | 34 | ||
1.4.5 Agricultural reuse | 37 | ||
1.4.6 Municipal reuse | 40 | ||
1.4.7 Industrial reuse | 41 | ||
1.4.8 Legislation | 41 | ||
1.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 42 | ||
1.6 REFERENCES | 42 | ||
Chapter 2: Water reuse in Middle Eastern and North African countries | 44 | ||
2.1 INTRODUCTION | 44 | ||
2.2 THE MIDDLE EASTERN AND NORTH AFRICAN REGION | 45 | ||
2.3 THE REUSE CONDITIONS | 50 | ||
2.3.1 Driving forces, benefits and concerns of water reuse | 50 | ||
2.3.2 The current state and significance of water reuse in the region | 51 | ||
2.3.3 Technologies for the treatment, storage and application of wastewater | 53 | ||
2.3.4 Water reuse in the Middle Eastern and North African region | 54 | ||
2.3.5 Acceptance of water reuse and public awareness | 55 | ||
2.3.6 The institutional framework | 56 | ||
2.3.7 The existing water reuse regulations | 57 | ||
2.3.8 Economics of water reuse | 61 | ||
2.3.9 Financing wastewater treatment and reuse | 61 | ||
2.4 CONCLUSION | 62 | ||
2.5 REFERENCES | 63 | ||
Chapter 3: Water reuse in the Northern Mediterranean Region | 65 | ||
3.1 INTRODUCTION | 65 | ||
3.2 GENERAL SITUATION | 66 | ||
3.2.1 Climate | 66 | ||
3.2.2 Water resources | 66 | ||
3.2.3 Regulations | 67 | ||
3.2.4 Wastewater Reuse practice: today | 67 | ||
3.2.5 Wastewater Reuse practice: future perspectives | 67 | ||
3.3 COUNTRY INFORMATION | 69 | ||
3.3.1 Italy | 69 | ||
Water resources | 69 | ||
Management of water resources | 69 | ||
Sewage treatment | 70 | ||
Regulations | 70 | ||
Reuse practice | 71 | ||
3.3.2 France | 72 | ||
Water resources | 72 | ||
Sewage treatment | 72 | ||
Regulations | 72 | ||
Reuse practice | 73 | ||
3.3.3 Spain | 73 | ||
3.3.4 Israel | 75 | ||
3.3.5 Cyprus | 76 | ||
Water resources | 76 | ||
Management of water resources | 76 | ||
Sewage treatment | 77 | ||
Regulations | 78 | ||
Reuse practice | 78 | ||
3.3.6 Turkey | 78 | ||
Water resources and demand | 78 | ||
Sewage treatment | 79 | ||
SECTION TWO: STAKEHOLDERS’ POINTS OF VIEW | 214 | ||
Chapter 10: Water reuse practices for agriculture | 216 | ||
10.1 INTRODUCTION | 216 | ||
10.2 RECYCLED WATER AS A VIABLE WATER RESOURCE | 219 | ||
10.2.1 Classification of water reuse applications in agriculture | 219 | ||
10.2.2 Major water reuse developments in agriculture | 221 | ||
10.2.3 Assessment of the feasibility of irrigation with recycled water | 222 | ||
10.2.4 Water quality requirements | 222 | ||
Pathogens | 222 | ||
Chemicals | 226 | ||
Salinity | 226 | ||
Toxic ions | 226 | ||
Trace elements | 227 | ||
Nutrients | 227 | ||
10.3 HEALTH PROTECTION MEASURES | 228 | ||
10.3.1 Policy, regulations and institutional initiatives | 229 | ||
Water reuse regulations | 229 | ||
Crop restrictions | 230 | ||
Human exposure control and immunisation | 230 | ||
10.3.2 Engineering practices for health protection | 231 | ||
Wastewater Treatment | 231 | ||
Control of water application: selection of irrigation method | 234 | ||
10.3.3 Agronomic practices for health protection | 236 | ||
Crop selection | 236 | ||
Control of water application: timing of irrigation | 236 | ||
Harvesting measures | 236 | ||
10.4 GOOD AGRONOMIC PRACTICES | 236 | ||
10.4.1 Crop selection and management | 238 | ||
10.4.2 Selection of irrigation method | 238 | ||
10.4.3 Management of water application | 240 | ||
10.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WATER REUSE IN AGRICULTURE | 240 | ||
10.6 CONCLUSIONS | 243 | ||
10.7 REFERENCES | 243 | ||
Chapter 11: Wastewater irrigation in urban agriculture | 245 | ||
11.1 INTRODUCTION | 245 | ||
11.2 URBAN AGRICULTURE | 246 | ||
11.3 CONSTRAINTS ON URBAN AGRICULTURE | 248 | ||
11.4 URBAN AGRICULTURE AND WASTEWATER USE | 249 | ||
11.5 BUILDING MARKETS FOR WASTEWATER: CONVINCING POLICY MAKERS | 250 | ||
11.6 SHIFTING SCALE: ADDRESSING THE NEEDS OF SMALL FARMERS | 252 | ||
11.7 TOWARDS A MORE RESPONSIVE POLICY | 253 | ||
11.7.1 National level policy considerations | 253 | ||
11.7.2 Municipal level policy considerations (UA oriented) | 254 | ||
11.8 CONCLUSIONS | 254 | ||
11.9 REFERENCES | 256 | ||
Chapter 12: Municipal water reuse | 258 | ||
12.1 INTRODUCTION | 258 | ||
12.2 MUNICIPAL WATER REUSE AND INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT | 258 | ||
12.3 MUNICIPAL REUSE APPLICATIONS | 259 | ||
12.4 MUNICIPAL REUSE CASE STUDIES | 259 | ||
12.4.1 Public facility applications | 259 | ||
12.4.2 Municipal services | 260 | ||
12.4.3 Environmental reuse applications | 261 | ||
12.5 System management and operation | 262 | ||
12.5.1 General | 262 | ||
12.5.2 Recycled water quality | 262 | ||
12.5.3 Water reclamation plant operation | 262 | ||
12.5.4 Storage and distribution of recycled water | 263 | ||
12.5.5 System management and quality control | 264 | ||
12.6 CONCLUSIONS | 265 | ||
12.7 REFERENCES | 265 | ||
Chapter 13: Current practices of water reuse in industry | 267 | ||
13.1 INTRODUCTION | 267 | ||
13.2 POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE | 268 | ||
13.3 MAIN INDUSTRIES FOR WATER REUSE | 268 | ||
13.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY | 270 | ||
13.4.1 Membrane bioreactor for industrial reuse | 270 | ||
13.4.2 Wafer fabrication (Singapore) | 271 | ||
13.4.3 Steel industry (South Korea) | 271 | ||
13.4.4 Aluminium can manufacturer (USA) | 272 | ||
13.4.5 Precision Glass (South Korea) | 272 | ||
13.4.6 Refinery (Australia) | 273 | ||
13.4.7 Power station (Boiler feed water, Hungary) | 273 | ||
13.4.8 Piggery Farm, Victoria, Australia (UNEP, 1994) | 274 | ||
13.5 CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY | 275 | ||
REFERENCES | 276 | ||
Chapter 14: Water reuse via aquifer recharge: intentional and unintentional practices | 277 | ||
14.1 INTRODUCTION | 277 | ||
14.2 AQUIFER PROPERTIES THAT INFLUENCE RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS | 278 | ||
14.3 INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS | 279 | ||
14.4 EXAMPLES OF INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS | 281 | ||
14.5 UNINTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS | 287 | ||
14.6 CONCLUSIONS | 291 | ||
14.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 291 | ||
14.8 REFERENCES | 292 | ||
SECTION THREE: EMERGING TOPICS | 296 | ||
Chapter 15: Ethical dilemmas in water recycling | 298 | ||
15.1 INTRODUCTION | 298 | ||
15.2 ECONOMIC BOTTOM LINE | 299 | ||
15.3 ENVIRONMENTAL BOTTOM LINE | 303 | ||
15.4 SOCIAL BOTTOM LINE | 306 | ||
15.4.1 Communication and stakeholder input | 306 | ||
15.4.2 Water quality | 308 | ||
15.4.3 Religious, cultural and aesthetic values | 311 | ||
15.5 REFERENCES | 314 | ||
Chapter 16: The economic dilemmas of water management and reuse | 316 | ||
16.1 INTRODUCTION | 316 | ||
16.2 WATER PRICING ARRANGEMENTS | 318 | ||
16.2.1 Setting Charges through Administrative Processes | 319 | ||
16.2.2 Setting Prices through Market Mechanisms | 321 | ||
16.3 THE ECONOMIC DILEMMAS | 322 | ||
16.3.1 Supply side - Economies of Scale | 322 | ||
16.3.2 Supply Side - Risk | 323 | ||
16.3.3 Supply side - Distortions of Past subsidies | 323 | ||
16.3.4 Supply side - Externalities | 324 | ||
16.3.5 Supply Side - Institutional impediments | 325 | ||
16.3.6 Demand side - Social impediments | 325 | ||
16.3.7 Demand side – mis-match of conditions | 326 | ||
16.4 CASE STUDIES OF WATER REUSE | 327 | ||
16.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 330 | ||
16.6 REFERENCES | 330 | ||
Chapter 17: Public policy and institutional capacity building: opportunities for innovation in recycling | 333 | ||
17.1 INTRODUCTION | 333 | ||
17.2 ACCESS TO WATER | 334 | ||
17.3 PROCESSES TO BE MANAGED | 336 | ||
17.4 THE CHANGING POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER | 338 | ||
17.4.1 Jurisdictional collaboration | 338 | ||
17.4.2 Title – the concept of “ownership” of water | 339 | ||
17.4.3 Impact of competition policy | 341 | ||
17.4.4 Costing and pricing | 343 | ||
17.4.5 Recycled water for the environment | 345 | ||
17.5 COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS | 345 | ||
17.6 CONCLUSION | 346 | ||
17.7 REFERENCES | 347 | ||
Chapter 18: Public acceptance of water reuse | 349 | ||
18.1 INTRODUCTION | 349 | ||
18.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS | 350 | ||
18.2.1 Previous research | 350 | ||
18.2.2 Recycled water risks | 350 | ||
18.2.3 Disgust – the “yuck” factor | 352 | ||
18.2.4 Recycled water uses | 352 | ||
18.2.5 Sources of recycled water | 352 | ||
18.2.6 The issue of choice | 353 | ||
18.2.7 Trust in authorities and scientific knowledge | 353 | ||
18.2.8 Attitudes towards the environment | 354 | ||
18.2.9 Environmental justice issues | 355 | ||
18.2.10 Socio-demographic factors | 355 | ||
18.2.11 Cost of recycled water | 356 | ||
18.3 CONSULTATION | 356 | ||
18.3.1 Community consultation approaches | 356 | ||
18.3.2 Identifying stakeholders | 357 | ||
18.3.3 Involving the community in projects | 358 | ||
Communication and outreach methods | 358 | ||
18.3.4 Communicating about risks | 359 | ||
Hazard and outrage | 359 | ||
Improving dialogues with communities | 360 | ||
18.3.5 Identifying and dealing with issues | 361 | ||
Identifying issues | 361 | ||
Evaluating issues | 361 | ||
Resolving conflict | 361 | ||
18.4 COMMUNITY EDUCATION | 362 | ||
18.5 CASE STUDIES | 362 | ||
18.5.1 Urban reuse | 362 | ||
18.5.2 Agricultural reuse | 363 | ||
18.5.3 Indirect reuse | 364 | ||
18.6 DISCUSSION | 364 | ||
18.7 CONCLUSIONS | 365 | ||
18.8 REFERENCES | 365 | ||
Chapter 19: Water reuse criteria: environmental and health risk based standards and guidelines | 368 | ||
19.1 INTRODUCTION | 368 | ||
19.2 WATER REUSE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH | 370 | ||
19.2.1 Pathogens | 370 | ||
19.2.2 Heavy metals | 371 | ||
19.2.3 Nutrients | 372 | ||
19.2.4 Salinity | 372 | ||
19.2.5 Organic matter | 373 | ||
19.2.6 Toxic organic compounds | 373 | ||
19.2.7 Endocrine disrupting substances and pharmaceutical residues | 373 | ||
19.2.8 Application of greywater use | 373 | ||
19.3 INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL REGULATIONS | 374 | ||
19.4 APPLICATION OF REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION | 377 | ||
19.5 WATER REUSE, WATER SCARCITY AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES | 381 | ||
19.6 CONCLUSIONS | 383 | ||
19.7 REFERENCES | 384 | ||
SECTION FOUR: CASE STUDIES | 388 | ||
Chapter 20: Water reuse in Japan | 390 | ||
20.1 MAIN TYPES OF WATER REUSE IN JAPAN | 390 | ||
20.1.1 Municipal water reuse | 390 | ||
20.1.2 Wastewater reuse schemes | 391 | ||
a) Individual building/block-wide wastewater reuse systems | 391 | ||
b) Large-scale wastewater reuse system | 392 | ||
c) Wastewater reuse for in-stream flow augmentation | 392 | ||
20.1.3 Reclaimed water quality criteria | 393 | ||
20.2 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE IN TOKYO: APPLICATION OF THE NEWLY DEVELOPED OZONE-RESISTANT MF MEMBRANE FOR WASTEWATER REUSE | 393 | ||
20.2.1 The current status of wastewater reuse in Tokyo (Sone, 2004) | 393 | ||
20.2.2 Development of a new wastewater reclamation system | 394 | ||
(1) The new wastewater reclamation system | 394 | ||
(2) Features of MF membrane | 394 | ||
(3) Pilot plant study | 395 | ||
(4)Cost estimates | 396 | ||
(5) Application of the new reclamation system at a wastewater treatment plant | 396 | ||
20.3 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE FOR NON-POTABLE PURPOSES IN FUKUOKA CITY | 397 | ||
20.4 LARGE-AREA WASTEWATER REUSE FOR MELTING SNOW IN SAPPORO CITY (FUNAMIZU ET AL., 2001) | 397 | ||
20.5 INDIVIDUAL BUILDING WASTEWATER REUSE SYSTEMS | 399 | ||
20.5.1 An example of individual building wastewater reuse | 399 | ||
20.5.2 Demand for reclaimed water and production of wastewater in buildings | 400 | ||
(1)Reclaimed water demand in a building | 400 | ||
(2)Wastewater production from several appliances in a building | 400 | ||
20.5.3 Examples of treatment system for individual building recycling | 401 | ||
(1)Treatment process of lower loaded graywater | 401 | ||
(2)Treatment process of higher loaded graywater | 402 | ||
(3)Treatment process of wastewater from a cooling tower | 402 | ||
(4)Treatment system of other wastewater | 403 | ||
20.6 REFERENCES | 403 | ||
Acknowledgement | 403 | ||
Chapter 21: Livelihoods from wastewater: water reuse in Faisalabad, Pakistan | 404 | ||
21.1 INTRODUCTION | 404 | ||
21.2 FAISALABAD-CITY | 405 | ||
21.3 WATER QUALITY | 405 | ||
21.4 FARMER CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEPTIONS OF WASTEWATER USE | 406 | ||
21.5 HEALTH IMPACTS | 409 | ||
21.6 WATER APPLICATIONS | 409 | ||
21.7 NUTRIENT APPLICATIONS | 410 | ||
21.8 SOIL QUALITY | 411 | ||
21.9 CROP QUALITY | 414 | ||
21.10 GROUNDWATER | 415 | ||
21.11 CONCLUSION | 415 | ||
21.12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 416 | ||
21.13 REFERENCES | 416 | ||
Chapter 22: Indirect water reuse for human consumption in Germany: the case of Berlin | 418 | ||
22.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES | 418 | ||
22.2 METHODS | 420 | ||
22.2.1 Field site | 420 | ||
22.2.2 Column system | 422 | ||
22.2.3 Analytics | 423 | ||
22.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 423 | ||
22.3.1 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) | 423 | ||
22.3.2 LC-OCD | 425 | ||
22.3.3 Adsorbable organic iodine (AOI) | 426 | ||
22.3.4 Trace pollutants | 427 | ||
22.4 CONCLUSIONS | 429 | ||
22.5 REFERENCES | 429 | ||
Chapter 23: Unplanned reuse of wastewater for human consumption: The Tula Valley, Mexico | 431 | ||
23.1 INTRODUCTION | 431 | ||
23.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM | 432 | ||
23.3 STUDY AREA | 432 | ||
23.3.1 Development of the irrigation area | 433 | ||
23.3.2 Groundwater | 434 | ||
23.3.3 Hydrology | 435 | ||
23.4 DRINKING WATER QUALITY | 437 | ||
23.5 WATER QUALITY IN THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER | 440 | ||
23.5.1 Comparison with wastewater | 441 | ||
23.5.2 Comparison with Mexico City´s water supply | 443 | ||
23.5.3 Comparison with a secondary effluent | 444 | ||
23.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS | 445 | ||
23.6.1 New ecosystems | 446 | ||
23.7 Water potabilization | 447 | ||
23.8 USE OF THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER TO SUPPLY MEXICO CITY’S WATER SUPPLY | 448 | ||
23.9 CONCLUSIONS | 448 | ||
23.10 REFERENCES | 449 | ||
Chapter 24: Water reuse in Windhoek, Namibia: 40 years and still the only case of direct water reuse for human consumption | 451 | ||
24.1 INTRODUCTION | 451 | ||
24.2 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SOURCES IN WINDHOEK | 452 | ||
24.3 FUTURE WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION TO WINDHOEK | 455 | ||
24.4 VARIOUS PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FROM 1968 TO 1995 | 455 | ||
24.5 PROCESS DESIGN FOR THE NEW GOREANGAB WATER RECLAMATION PLANT | 456 | ||
24.5.1 Summary | 457 | ||
24.5.2 Raw water quality profile | 457 | ||
24.5.3 Determination of treatment objectives | 458 | ||
24.5.4 The multiple-barrier concept | 459 | ||
24.5.5 Experiments and pilot studies to determine process design criteria | 461 | ||
24.5.6 Selection of final process train | 462 | ||
24.6 OPERATION, WATER QUALITY AND COMPARATIVE COSTS OF THE NEW PLANT | 463 | ||
24.6.1 Operational experience to date | 463 | ||
24.6.2 Water quality and monitoring | 463 | ||
24.6.3 Quality concerns with the present process configuration | 464 | ||
24.6.4 Cost considerations | 465 | ||
24.7 PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF DIRECT POTABLE REUSE | 465 | ||
24.7.1 Historic reasons for acceptance | 466 | ||
24.7.2 Acceptance of the latest increased production | 467 | ||
24.8 NEW RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS | 468 | ||
24.8.1 Process related refinements | 468 | ||
24.8.2 Quality control | 469 | ||
24.8.3 Health | 469 | ||
24.9 CONCLUSION | 469 | ||
24.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 470 | ||
24.11 REFERENCES | 470 | ||
Chapter 25: Industrial water resource management and recycling in Germany: case studies from the food and beverage industry | 472 | ||
25.1 INTRODUCTION | 472 | ||
25.2 IN-PLANT MEASURES AND INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION TO REDUCE WATER VOLUMES FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES | 473 | ||
25.3 IN-PLANT MEASURES | 474 | ||
25.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY DURING REUTILISATION AND RECIRCULATION | 475 | ||
25.5 EXAMPLES FROM DIFFERENT GERMAN INDUSTRIES | 475 | ||
25.5.1 Sugar industry | 476 | ||
25.5.2 Malting industry (Ahrens 1998) | 476 | ||
25.5.3 Beverage industry (ATV Handbuch Industrieabwasser 2000) | 477 | ||
25.5.4 Agrar Bio Recycling GmbH in Wietzendorf (Theilen and Richter 2005) | 478 | ||
Description of the treatment plant in 2002 | 478 | ||
Consequences of changes during the 2002/2003 campaign | 480 | ||
Conclusions and results for the business and industry | 481 | ||
25.5.5 Economy of water re-cycling | 482 | ||
25.6 CONCLUSION | 482 | ||
25.7 REFERENCES | 483 | ||
Chapter 26: A new paradigm for urban water management and how industry is coping with it | 484 | ||
26.1 THE NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM | 484 | ||
26.2 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION FEASIBILITY | 488 | ||
26.2.1 Public supply and natural sources | 488 | ||
26.2.2 Buying reclaimed water from public supplies | 489 | ||
26.2.3 Reclaiming and reusing its own effluents | 491 | ||
Demand management | 492 | ||
Water supply management | 492 | ||
26.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE IN BRAZIL AND IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO | 493 | ||
26.4 REUSE AS A TOOL TO ATTENUATE INDUSTRIAL WATER CHARGES IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO | 494 | ||
26.5 THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTER ON WATER REUSE (IRCWR/CIRRA) TO SUPPORT THE PRACTICE OF WATER CONSERVATION AND REUSE IN BRAZIL | 497 | ||
26.6 CONCLUSIONS | 497 | ||
26.7 REFERENCES | 498 | ||
Chapter 27: Israel as a case study | 500 | ||
27.1 INTRODUCTION | 500 | ||
27.1.1 Geography and climate | 500 | ||
27.1.2 Water resources and demand | 500 | ||
27.1.3 Sewage as a water resource – the strategic decision | 501 | ||
27.1.4 The typical farmer in Israel | 501 | ||
27.2 CHRONOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENTS | 501 | ||
27.2.1 The seventies | 504 | ||
27.2.2 The eighties | 504 | ||
27.2.3 The nineties | 504 | ||
27.2.4 Present situation | 505 | ||
27.3 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES | 507 | ||
27.3.1 Institutional organization | 507 | ||
27.3.2 Is 75% reuse the limit? | 508 | ||
27.3.3 Nutrients in wastewater are not accounted for by farmers | 508 | ||
27.3.4 The contractual relationship between urban and rural sectors | 508 | ||
27.3.5 The use of wastewater storage reservoirs as treatment units | 509 | ||
27.3.6 Guidelines on wastewater treatment for agricultural irrigation | 510 | ||
27.3.7 Salination of soils and aquifers - a threat to sustainability | 510 | ||
27.4 SUMMARY: WHAT CAN BE LEARNED FROM THE ISRAELI EXPERIENCE | 516 | ||
27.5 REFERENCES | 517 | ||
Chapter 28: Economic analysis of wastewater reuse projects: A methodology for private reuse and public reuse cases | 520 | ||
28.1 INTRODUCTION | 520 | ||
28.2 METHODOLOGY | 521 | ||
28.3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE REUSE OF RECLAIMED WASTEWATER – A CASE STUDY | 523 | ||
28.3.1 Wastewater reuse in Spain | 523 | ||
28.3.2 Objective | 524 | ||
28.3.3 Location | 524 | ||
Terrassa | 524 | ||
Empuriabrava | 525 | ||
28.3.4 Technical description | 525 | ||
28.3.5 Materials and methods | 525 | ||
28.3.5.1 Materials | 525 | ||
28.3.5.2 Methods | 526 | ||
28.3.6 Project Impacts | 526 | ||
28.3.7 Financial requirements | 528 | ||
28.3.8 Income | 528 | ||
Terrassa | 529 | ||
Empuriabrava | 529 | ||
28.3.9 Costs | 529 | ||
a) Infrastructure (private costs) | 529 | ||
b) Use of water resources | 530 | ||
28.3.10 Results and discussion | 530 | ||
28.4 CONCLUSIONS | 530 | ||
28.4.1 Economic policy proposals | 531 | ||
28.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 531 | ||
28.6 REFERENCES | 531 | ||
Chapter 29: Wastewater reclamation and reuse in Spain | 533 | ||
29.1 INTRODUCTION | 533 | ||
29.2 CASE STUDIES | 534 | ||
29.2.1 Canary Islands | 534 | ||
29.2.2 Catalonia | 535 | ||
29.2.3 Costa del Sol (Málaga) | 535 | ||
29.2.4 Madrid | 535 | ||
29.2.5 Valencia and Murcia | 536 | ||
29.2.6 Vitoria | 536 | ||
29.3 CONCLUSIONS | 536 | ||
29.3 REFERENCES | 537 | ||
Chapter 30: Trying to set a common framework to rule water reuse in the Mediterranean region | 538 | ||
30.1 INTRODUCTION | 538 | ||
30.2 BENCHMARK STANDARDS | 540 | ||
30.2.1 California water reuse standards | 540 | ||
30.2.2 WHO water reuse guidelines | 543 | ||
30.2.3 Comments | 545 | ||
30.3 PROPOSAL FOR MEDITERRANEAN WATER REUSE GUIDELINES | 545 | ||
30.3.1 Principles | 545 | ||
30.3.2 Foremost health risks | 546 | ||
30.3.3 Criteria | 547 | ||
30.3.4 Categories of reuse applications and water quality | 547 | ||
30.3.5 Guidelines | 548 | ||
Water Category I | 548 | ||
Bacterial criterion | 548 | ||
Nematode egg criterion | 550 | ||
TSS criterion | 550 | ||
Minimum treatment recommended | 550 | ||
Water category II | 550 | ||
Bacterial criterion | 551 | ||
Nematode egg criterion | 554 | ||
TSS criterion | 554 | ||
Minimum treatment recommended | 554 | ||
Water category III | 554 | ||
Bacterial criterion | 554 | ||
Nematode egg criterion | 555 | ||
TSS criterion | 555 | ||
Minimum treatment recommended | 555 | ||
Category IV | 555 | ||
Microbial criteria | 555 | ||
TSS criterion and treatment recommended | 555 | ||
30.4 TOWARDS MORE SCIENTIFICALLY-BASED REGULATIONS? | 555 | ||
30.4.1 Harmonisation of health-based guidelines | 556 | ||
30.4.2 Deterministic approach for setting health-based targets | 556 | ||
Verification monitoring | 557 | ||
30.4.3 Limits of the deterministic approach | 557 | ||
30.5 CONCLUSIONS | 558 | ||
30.6 REFERENCES | 558 | ||
Chapter 31: Wastewater use in high rainfall riverine cities: comparisons from Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam | 561 | ||
31.1 INTRODUCTION | 561 | ||
31.2 THE AFRICAN CASE | 563 | ||
31.2.1 Yaounde, Cameroon | 563 | ||
31.3 THE ASIAN CASES | 563 | ||
31.3.1 Kathmandu Valley, Nepal | 563 | ||
31.3.2 Hanoi, Vietnam | 564 | ||
31.4 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING | 564 | ||
31.4.1 The urban environment: impacts of poor sanitation and wastewater management | 564 | ||
31.4.2 Impacts of industrial development | 565 | ||
31.4.3 Wastewater disposal point, and quality of water bodies | 566 | ||
31.4.4 Profile of Wastewater agriculture | 566 | ||
31.4.5 Location of sites, sources and field application of wastewater | 567 | ||
31.4.6 Crop production systems and land tenure | 568 | ||
31.4.7 Gender and social diversity of users and related impacts | 570 | ||
31.4.8 Preferences and perceptions of users | 571 | ||
31.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 572 | ||
31.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 573 | ||
31.7 REFERENCES | 574 | ||
Chapter 32: Case Studies in Middle Eastern and North African countries | 575 | ||
32.1 ALGERIA | 575 | ||
32.2 BAHRAIN | 576 | ||
32.3 EGYPT | 576 | ||
32.4 IRAN | 578 | ||
32.5 IRAQ | 579 | ||
32.6 JORDAN | 580 | ||
32.7 KUWAIT | 584 | ||
32.8 LIBYA | 586 | ||
32.9 MOROCCO | 587 | ||
32.10 OMAN | 589 | ||
32.11 PALESTINE | 591 | ||
32.12 QATAR | 593 | ||
32.13 SAUDI ARABIA | 594 | ||
32.14 SYRIA | 596 | ||
32.15 TUNISIA | 598 | ||
32.16 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES | 601 | ||
32.17 YEMEN | 603 | ||
32.18 REFERENCES | 605 | ||
Annex 1: Water Availability and Water Intensity Use index for different Countries | 610 | ||
Annex 2: Agricultural irrigation: surface irrigated and volume used | 616 | ||
REFERENCES | 618 | ||
Index | 620 |