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Water Reuse

Water Reuse

Blanca Jimenez | Takashi Asano | Bryan Ellis | Jean-Luc Bertrand-Krajewski | Chris Binnie | Martin Kimber

(2008)

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Book Details

Abstract

Water Reuse: An International Survey of current practice, issues and needs examines water reuse practices around the world from different perspectives. The objective is to show how differently wastewater reuse is conceived and practised around the world as well as to present the varied needs and possibilities for reusing wastewater.  In the first section water reuse practices around the world are described for regions having common water availability, reuse needs and social aspects. 
The second section refers to the “stakeholders” point of view. Each reuse purpose demands different water quality, not only to protect health and the environment but also to fulfil the requirements of the specific reuse. Reuses considered are agricultural, urban agriculture as a special case of the former, municipal and industrial. Alongside these uses, the indirect reuse for human consumption through aquifer recharge is also discussed. The third section deals with emerging and controversial topics. Ethical and economical dilemmas in the field are presented as a subject not frequently addressed in this field. The role of governments in respect of public policy in reuse is discussed as well as the different international criteria and standards for reusing wastewater. The importance of public acceptance and the way to properly handle it is also considered. 
The fourth section of the book presents contrasting case studies; typical situations in the developed world (Japan and Germany) are compared to those in developing countries (Pakistan and Brazil) for agricultural and industrial reuse. Indirect planned reuse for human consumption (Germany) is compared with an unplanned one (Mexico). The Windhoek, Namibia case study is presented to emphasize why if the direct reuse of wastewater for human consumption has been performed with success for more than 35 years it is still the only example of this type around the world. To illustrate the difficulties of having a common framework for regulating water reuse in several countries, the Mediterranean situation is described. Other case studies presented refer to the reuse situation in Israel, Spain, Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam, these latter countries being located in water rich areas. 
This book will be an invaluable information source for all those concerned with water reuse including water utility managers, wastewater policy makers and water resources planners as well as researchers and students in environmental engineering, water resources planning and sanitary engineering.   
Scientific and Technical Report No. 20  

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Contents 6
List of Contributors 9
Introduction 14
SECTION ONE: A WORLD OVERVIEW 18
Chapter 1: Water reclamation and reuse around the world 20
1.1 INTRODUCTION 20
1.2 DEFINITIONS 20
1.3 THRESHOLDS ON WATER AVAILABILITY 22
1.4 WORLD SITUATION 22
1.4.1 Water availability 22
1.4.2 Water reuse 25
1.4.3 Main wastewater reuse drivers 33
1.4.4 Main countries reusing wastewater 34
1.4.5 Agricultural reuse 37
1.4.6 Municipal reuse 40
1.4.7 Industrial reuse 41
1.4.8 Legislation 41
1.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 42
1.6 REFERENCES 42
Chapter 2: Water reuse in Middle Eastern and North African countries 44
2.1 INTRODUCTION 44
2.2 THE MIDDLE EASTERN AND NORTH AFRICAN REGION 45
2.3 THE REUSE CONDITIONS 50
2.3.1 Driving forces, benefits and concerns of water reuse 50
2.3.2 The current state and significance of water reuse in the region 51
2.3.3 Technologies for the treatment, storage and application of wastewater 53
2.3.4 Water reuse in the Middle Eastern and North African region 54
2.3.5 Acceptance of water reuse and public awareness 55
2.3.6 The institutional framework 56
2.3.7 The existing water reuse regulations 57
2.3.8 Economics of water reuse 61
2.3.9 Financing wastewater treatment and reuse 61
2.4 CONCLUSION 62
2.5 REFERENCES 63
Chapter 3: Water reuse in the Northern Mediterranean Region 65
3.1 INTRODUCTION 65
3.2 GENERAL SITUATION 66
3.2.1 Climate 66
3.2.2 Water resources 66
3.2.3 Regulations 67
3.2.4 Wastewater Reuse practice: today 67
3.2.5 Wastewater Reuse practice: future perspectives 67
3.3 COUNTRY INFORMATION 69
3.3.1 Italy 69
Water resources 69
Management of water resources 69
Sewage treatment 70
Regulations 70
Reuse practice 71
3.3.2 France 72
Water resources 72
Sewage treatment 72
Regulations 72
Reuse practice 73
3.3.3 Spain 73
3.3.4 Israel 75
3.3.5 Cyprus 76
Water resources 76
Management of water resources 76
Sewage treatment 77
Regulations 78
Reuse practice 78
3.3.6 Turkey 78
Water resources and demand 78
Sewage treatment 79
SECTION TWO: STAKEHOLDERS’ POINTS OF VIEW 214
Chapter 10: Water reuse practices for agriculture 216
10.1 INTRODUCTION 216
10.2 RECYCLED WATER AS A VIABLE WATER RESOURCE 219
10.2.1 Classification of water reuse applications in agriculture 219
10.2.2 Major water reuse developments in agriculture 221
10.2.3 Assessment of the feasibility of irrigation with recycled water 222
10.2.4 Water quality requirements 222
Pathogens 222
Chemicals 226
Salinity 226
Toxic ions 226
Trace elements 227
Nutrients 227
10.3 HEALTH PROTECTION MEASURES 228
10.3.1 Policy, regulations and institutional initiatives 229
Water reuse regulations 229
Crop restrictions 230
Human exposure control and immunisation 230
10.3.2 Engineering practices for health protection 231
Wastewater Treatment 231
Control of water application: selection of irrigation method 234
10.3.3 Agronomic practices for health protection 236
Crop selection 236
Control of water application: timing of irrigation 236
Harvesting measures 236
10.4 GOOD AGRONOMIC PRACTICES 236
10.4.1 Crop selection and management 238
10.4.2 Selection of irrigation method 238
10.4.3 Management of water application 240
10.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WATER REUSE IN AGRICULTURE 240
10.6 CONCLUSIONS 243
10.7 REFERENCES 243
Chapter 11: Wastewater irrigation in urban agriculture 245
11.1 INTRODUCTION 245
11.2 URBAN AGRICULTURE 246
11.3 CONSTRAINTS ON URBAN AGRICULTURE 248
11.4 URBAN AGRICULTURE AND WASTEWATER USE 249
11.5 BUILDING MARKETS FOR WASTEWATER: CONVINCING POLICY MAKERS 250
11.6 SHIFTING SCALE: ADDRESSING THE NEEDS OF SMALL FARMERS 252
11.7 TOWARDS A MORE RESPONSIVE POLICY 253
11.7.1 National level policy considerations 253
11.7.2 Municipal level policy considerations (UA oriented) 254
11.8 CONCLUSIONS 254
11.9 REFERENCES 256
Chapter 12: Municipal water reuse 258
12.1 INTRODUCTION 258
12.2 MUNICIPAL WATER REUSE AND INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT 258
12.3 MUNICIPAL REUSE APPLICATIONS 259
12.4 MUNICIPAL REUSE CASE STUDIES 259
12.4.1 Public facility applications 259
12.4.2 Municipal services 260
12.4.3 Environmental reuse applications 261
12.5 System management and operation 262
12.5.1 General 262
12.5.2 Recycled water quality 262
12.5.3 Water reclamation plant operation 262
12.5.4 Storage and distribution of recycled water 263
12.5.5 System management and quality control 264
12.6 CONCLUSIONS 265
12.7 REFERENCES 265
Chapter 13: Current practices of water reuse in industry 267
13.1 INTRODUCTION 267
13.2 POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE 268
13.3 MAIN INDUSTRIES FOR WATER REUSE 268
13.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY 270
13.4.1 Membrane bioreactor for industrial reuse 270
13.4.2 Wafer fabrication (Singapore) 271
13.4.3 Steel industry (South Korea) 271
13.4.4 Aluminium can manufacturer (USA) 272
13.4.5 Precision Glass (South Korea) 272
13.4.6 Refinery (Australia) 273
13.4.7 Power station (Boiler feed water, Hungary) 273
13.4.8 Piggery Farm, Victoria, Australia (UNEP, 1994) 274
13.5 CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REUSE IN INDUSTRY 275
REFERENCES 276
Chapter 14: Water reuse via aquifer recharge: intentional and unintentional practices 277
14.1 INTRODUCTION 277
14.2 AQUIFER PROPERTIES THAT INFLUENCE RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS 278
14.3 INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS 279
14.4 EXAMPLES OF INTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS 281
14.5 UNINTENTIONAL RECHARGE WITH RECLAIMED WATERS 287
14.6 CONCLUSIONS 291
14.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 291
14.8 REFERENCES 292
SECTION THREE: EMERGING TOPICS 296
Chapter 15: Ethical dilemmas in water recycling 298
15.1 INTRODUCTION 298
15.2 ECONOMIC BOTTOM LINE 299
15.3 ENVIRONMENTAL BOTTOM LINE 303
15.4 SOCIAL BOTTOM LINE 306
15.4.1 Communication and stakeholder input 306
15.4.2 Water quality 308
15.4.3 Religious, cultural and aesthetic values 311
15.5 REFERENCES 314
Chapter 16: The economic dilemmas of water management and reuse 316
16.1 INTRODUCTION 316
16.2 WATER PRICING ARRANGEMENTS 318
16.2.1 Setting Charges through Administrative Processes 319
16.2.2 Setting Prices through Market Mechanisms 321
16.3 THE ECONOMIC DILEMMAS 322
16.3.1 Supply side - Economies of Scale 322
16.3.2 Supply Side - Risk 323
16.3.3 Supply side - Distortions of Past subsidies 323
16.3.4 Supply side - Externalities 324
16.3.5 Supply Side - Institutional impediments 325
16.3.6 Demand side - Social impediments 325
16.3.7 Demand side – mis-match of conditions 326
16.4 CASE STUDIES OF WATER REUSE 327
16.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 330
16.6 REFERENCES 330
Chapter 17: Public policy and institutional capacity building: opportunities for innovation in recycling 333
17.1 INTRODUCTION 333
17.2 ACCESS TO WATER 334
17.3 PROCESSES TO BE MANAGED 336
17.4 THE CHANGING POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER 338
17.4.1 Jurisdictional collaboration 338
17.4.2 Title – the concept of “ownership” of water 339
17.4.3 Impact of competition policy 341
17.4.4 Costing and pricing 343
17.4.5 Recycled water for the environment 345
17.5 COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS 345
17.6 CONCLUSION 346
17.7 REFERENCES 347
Chapter 18: Public acceptance of water reuse 349
18.1 INTRODUCTION 349
18.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS 350
18.2.1 Previous research 350
18.2.2 Recycled water risks 350
18.2.3 Disgust – the “yuck” factor 352
18.2.4 Recycled water uses 352
18.2.5 Sources of recycled water 352
18.2.6 The issue of choice 353
18.2.7 Trust in authorities and scientific knowledge 353
18.2.8 Attitudes towards the environment 354
18.2.9 Environmental justice issues 355
18.2.10 Socio-demographic factors 355
18.2.11 Cost of recycled water 356
18.3 CONSULTATION 356
18.3.1 Community consultation approaches 356
18.3.2 Identifying stakeholders 357
18.3.3 Involving the community in projects 358
Communication and outreach methods 358
18.3.4 Communicating about risks 359
Hazard and outrage 359
Improving dialogues with communities 360
18.3.5 Identifying and dealing with issues 361
Identifying issues 361
Evaluating issues 361
Resolving conflict 361
18.4 COMMUNITY EDUCATION 362
18.5 CASE STUDIES 362
18.5.1 Urban reuse 362
18.5.2 Agricultural reuse 363
18.5.3 Indirect reuse 364
18.6 DISCUSSION 364
18.7 CONCLUSIONS 365
18.8 REFERENCES 365
Chapter 19: Water reuse criteria: environmental and health risk based standards and guidelines 368
19.1 INTRODUCTION 368
19.2 WATER REUSE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 370
19.2.1 Pathogens 370
19.2.2 Heavy metals 371
19.2.3 Nutrients 372
19.2.4 Salinity 372
19.2.5 Organic matter 373
19.2.6 Toxic organic compounds 373
19.2.7 Endocrine disrupting substances and pharmaceutical residues 373
19.2.8 Application of greywater use 373
19.3 INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL REGULATIONS 374
19.4 APPLICATION OF REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION 377
19.5 WATER REUSE, WATER SCARCITY AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 381
19.6 CONCLUSIONS 383
19.7 REFERENCES 384
SECTION FOUR: CASE STUDIES 388
Chapter 20: Water reuse in Japan 390
20.1 MAIN TYPES OF WATER REUSE IN JAPAN 390
20.1.1 Municipal water reuse 390
20.1.2 Wastewater reuse schemes 391
a) Individual building/block-wide wastewater reuse systems 391
b) Large-scale wastewater reuse system 392
c) Wastewater reuse for in-stream flow augmentation 392
20.1.3 Reclaimed water quality criteria 393
20.2 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE IN TOKYO: APPLICATION OF THE NEWLY DEVELOPED OZONE-RESISTANT MF MEMBRANE FOR WASTEWATER REUSE 393
20.2.1 The current status of wastewater reuse in Tokyo (Sone, 2004) 393
20.2.2 Development of a new wastewater reclamation system 394
(1) The new wastewater reclamation system 394
(2) Features of MF membrane 394
(3) Pilot plant study 395
(4)Cost estimates 396
(5) Application of the new reclamation system at a wastewater treatment plant 396
20.3 LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER REUSE FOR NON-POTABLE PURPOSES IN FUKUOKA CITY 397
20.4 LARGE-AREA WASTEWATER REUSE FOR MELTING SNOW IN SAPPORO CITY (FUNAMIZU ET AL., 2001) 397
20.5 INDIVIDUAL BUILDING WASTEWATER REUSE SYSTEMS 399
20.5.1 An example of individual building wastewater reuse 399
20.5.2 Demand for reclaimed water and production of wastewater in buildings 400
(1)Reclaimed water demand in a building 400
(2)Wastewater production from several appliances in a building 400
20.5.3 Examples of treatment system for individual building recycling 401
(1)Treatment process of lower loaded graywater 401
(2)Treatment process of higher loaded graywater 402
(3)Treatment process of wastewater from a cooling tower 402
(4)Treatment system of other wastewater 403
20.6 REFERENCES 403
Acknowledgement 403
Chapter 21: Livelihoods from wastewater: water reuse in Faisalabad, Pakistan 404
21.1 INTRODUCTION 404
21.2 FAISALABAD-CITY 405
21.3 WATER QUALITY 405
21.4 FARMER CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEPTIONS OF WASTEWATER USE 406
21.5 HEALTH IMPACTS 409
21.6 WATER APPLICATIONS 409
21.7 NUTRIENT APPLICATIONS 410
21.8 SOIL QUALITY 411
21.9 CROP QUALITY 414
21.10 GROUNDWATER 415
21.11 CONCLUSION 415
21.12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 416
21.13 REFERENCES 416
Chapter 22: Indirect water reuse for human consumption in Germany: the case of Berlin 418
22.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 418
22.2 METHODS 420
22.2.1 Field site 420
22.2.2 Column system 422
22.2.3 Analytics 423
22.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 423
22.3.1 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) 423
22.3.2 LC-OCD 425
22.3.3 Adsorbable organic iodine (AOI) 426
22.3.4 Trace pollutants 427
22.4 CONCLUSIONS 429
22.5 REFERENCES 429
Chapter 23: Unplanned reuse of wastewater for human consumption: The Tula Valley, Mexico 431
23.1 INTRODUCTION 431
23.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM 432
23.3 STUDY AREA 432
23.3.1 Development of the irrigation area 433
23.3.2 Groundwater 434
23.3.3 Hydrology 435
23.4 DRINKING WATER QUALITY 437
23.5 WATER QUALITY IN THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER 440
23.5.1 Comparison with wastewater 441
23.5.2 Comparison with Mexico City´s water supply 443
23.5.3 Comparison with a secondary effluent 444
23.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 445
23.6.1 New ecosystems 446
23.7 Water potabilization 447
23.8 USE OF THE TULA VALLEY AQUIFER TO SUPPLY MEXICO CITY’S WATER SUPPLY 448
23.9 CONCLUSIONS 448
23.10 REFERENCES 449
Chapter 24: Water reuse in Windhoek, Namibia: 40 years and still the only case of direct water reuse for human consumption 451
24.1 INTRODUCTION 451
24.2 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SOURCES IN WINDHOEK 452
24.3 FUTURE WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION TO WINDHOEK 455
24.4 VARIOUS PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FROM 1968 TO 1995 455
24.5 PROCESS DESIGN FOR THE NEW GOREANGAB WATER RECLAMATION PLANT 456
24.5.1 Summary 457
24.5.2 Raw water quality profile 457
24.5.3 Determination of treatment objectives 458
24.5.4 The multiple-barrier concept 459
24.5.5 Experiments and pilot studies to determine process design criteria 461
24.5.6 Selection of final process train 462
24.6 OPERATION, WATER QUALITY AND COMPARATIVE COSTS OF THE NEW PLANT 463
24.6.1 Operational experience to date 463
24.6.2 Water quality and monitoring 463
24.6.3 Quality concerns with the present process configuration 464
24.6.4 Cost considerations 465
24.7 PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF DIRECT POTABLE REUSE 465
24.7.1 Historic reasons for acceptance 466
24.7.2 Acceptance of the latest increased production 467
24.8 NEW RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS 468
24.8.1 Process related refinements 468
24.8.2 Quality control 469
24.8.3 Health 469
24.9 CONCLUSION 469
24.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 470
24.11 REFERENCES 470
Chapter 25: Industrial water resource management and recycling in Germany: case studies from the food and beverage industry 472
25.1 INTRODUCTION 472
25.2 IN-PLANT MEASURES AND INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION TO REDUCE WATER VOLUMES FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 473
25.3 IN-PLANT MEASURES 474
25.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY DURING REUTILISATION AND RECIRCULATION 475
25.5 EXAMPLES FROM DIFFERENT GERMAN INDUSTRIES 475
25.5.1 Sugar industry 476
25.5.2 Malting industry (Ahrens 1998) 476
25.5.3 Beverage industry (ATV Handbuch Industrieabwasser 2000) 477
25.5.4 Agrar Bio Recycling GmbH in Wietzendorf (Theilen and Richter 2005) 478
Description of the treatment plant in 2002 478
Consequences of changes during the 2002/2003 campaign 480
Conclusions and results for the business and industry 481
25.5.5 Economy of water re-cycling 482
25.6 CONCLUSION 482
25.7 REFERENCES 483
Chapter 26: A new paradigm for urban water management and how industry is coping with it 484
26.1 THE NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM 484
26.2 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION FEASIBILITY 488
26.2.1 Public supply and natural sources 488
26.2.2 Buying reclaimed water from public supplies 489
26.2.3 Reclaiming and reusing its own effluents 491
Demand management 492
Water supply management 492
26.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER REUSE IN BRAZIL AND IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO 493
26.4 REUSE AS A TOOL TO ATTENUATE INDUSTRIAL WATER CHARGES IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO 494
26.5 THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTER ON WATER REUSE (IRCWR/CIRRA) TO SUPPORT THE PRACTICE OF WATER CONSERVATION AND REUSE IN BRAZIL 497
26.6 CONCLUSIONS 497
26.7 REFERENCES 498
Chapter 27: Israel as a case study 500
27.1 INTRODUCTION 500
27.1.1 Geography and climate 500
27.1.2 Water resources and demand 500
27.1.3 Sewage as a water resource – the strategic decision 501
27.1.4 The typical farmer in Israel 501
27.2 CHRONOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENTS 501
27.2.1 The seventies 504
27.2.2 The eighties 504
27.2.3 The nineties 504
27.2.4 Present situation 505
27.3 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES 507
27.3.1 Institutional organization 507
27.3.2 Is 75% reuse the limit? 508
27.3.3 Nutrients in wastewater are not accounted for by farmers 508
27.3.4 The contractual relationship between urban and rural sectors 508
27.3.5 The use of wastewater storage reservoirs as treatment units 509
27.3.6 Guidelines on wastewater treatment for agricultural irrigation 510
27.3.7 Salination of soils and aquifers - a threat to sustainability 510
27.4 SUMMARY: WHAT CAN BE LEARNED FROM THE ISRAELI EXPERIENCE 516
27.5 REFERENCES 517
Chapter 28: Economic analysis of wastewater reuse projects: A methodology for private reuse and public reuse cases 520
28.1 INTRODUCTION 520
28.2 METHODOLOGY 521
28.3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE REUSE OF RECLAIMED WASTEWATER – A CASE STUDY 523
28.3.1 Wastewater reuse in Spain 523
28.3.2 Objective 524
28.3.3 Location 524
Terrassa 524
Empuriabrava 525
28.3.4 Technical description 525
28.3.5 Materials and methods 525
28.3.5.1 Materials 525
28.3.5.2 Methods 526
28.3.6 Project Impacts 526
28.3.7 Financial requirements 528
28.3.8 Income 528
Terrassa 529
Empuriabrava 529
28.3.9 Costs 529
a) Infrastructure (private costs) 529
b) Use of water resources 530
28.3.10 Results and discussion 530
28.4 CONCLUSIONS 530
28.4.1 Economic policy proposals 531
28.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 531
28.6 REFERENCES 531
Chapter 29: Wastewater reclamation and reuse in Spain 533
29.1 INTRODUCTION 533
29.2 CASE STUDIES 534
29.2.1 Canary Islands 534
29.2.2 Catalonia 535
29.2.3 Costa del Sol (Málaga) 535
29.2.4 Madrid 535
29.2.5 Valencia and Murcia 536
29.2.6 Vitoria 536
29.3 CONCLUSIONS 536
29.3 REFERENCES 537
Chapter 30: Trying to set a common framework to rule water reuse in the Mediterranean region 538
30.1 INTRODUCTION 538
30.2 BENCHMARK STANDARDS 540
30.2.1 California water reuse standards 540
30.2.2 WHO water reuse guidelines 543
30.2.3 Comments 545
30.3 PROPOSAL FOR MEDITERRANEAN WATER REUSE GUIDELINES 545
30.3.1 Principles 545
30.3.2 Foremost health risks 546
30.3.3 Criteria 547
30.3.4 Categories of reuse applications and water quality 547
30.3.5 Guidelines 548
Water Category I 548
Bacterial criterion 548
Nematode egg criterion 550
TSS criterion 550
Minimum treatment recommended 550
Water category II 550
Bacterial criterion 551
Nematode egg criterion 554
TSS criterion 554
Minimum treatment recommended 554
Water category III 554
Bacterial criterion 554
Nematode egg criterion 555
TSS criterion 555
Minimum treatment recommended 555
Category IV 555
Microbial criteria 555
TSS criterion and treatment recommended 555
30.4 TOWARDS MORE SCIENTIFICALLY-BASED REGULATIONS? 555
30.4.1 Harmonisation of health-based guidelines 556
30.4.2 Deterministic approach for setting health-based targets 556
Verification monitoring 557
30.4.3 Limits of the deterministic approach 557
30.5 CONCLUSIONS 558
30.6 REFERENCES 558
Chapter 31: Wastewater use in high rainfall riverine cities: comparisons from Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam 561
31.1 INTRODUCTION 561
31.2 THE AFRICAN CASE 563
31.2.1 Yaounde, Cameroon 563
31.3 THE ASIAN CASES 563
31.3.1 Kathmandu Valley, Nepal 563
31.3.2 Hanoi, Vietnam 564
31.4 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING 564
31.4.1 The urban environment: impacts of poor sanitation and wastewater management 564
31.4.2 Impacts of industrial development 565
31.4.3 Wastewater disposal point, and quality of water bodies 566
31.4.4 Profile of Wastewater agriculture 566
31.4.5 Location of sites, sources and field application of wastewater 567
31.4.6 Crop production systems and land tenure 568
31.4.7 Gender and social diversity of users and related impacts 570
31.4.8 Preferences and perceptions of users 571
31.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 572
31.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 573
31.7 REFERENCES 574
Chapter 32: Case Studies in Middle Eastern and North African countries 575
32.1 ALGERIA 575
32.2 BAHRAIN 576
32.3 EGYPT 576
32.4 IRAN 578
32.5 IRAQ 579
32.6 JORDAN 580
32.7 KUWAIT 584
32.8 LIBYA 586
32.9 MOROCCO 587
32.10 OMAN 589
32.11 PALESTINE 591
32.12 QATAR 593
32.13 SAUDI ARABIA 594
32.14 SYRIA 596
32.15 TUNISIA 598
32.16 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 601
32.17 YEMEN 603
32.18 REFERENCES 605
Annex 1: Water Availability and Water Intensity Use index for different Countries 610
Annex 2: Agricultural irrigation: surface irrigated and volume used 616
REFERENCES 618
Index 620