BOOK
Groundwater Management in Large River Basins
Milan Dimkic | Heinz-Jurgen Brauch | Michael Kavanaugh
(2008)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
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This book reviews the state-of-the-art of groundwater management in large river basins, providing an innovative, informative and consistent approach with technical tools for planners, decision makers and engineers. Groundwater Management in Large River Basins provides comprehensive coverage of the basic elements of groundwater management in large river basins, including:
- Social, economic and legislative framework, goals, practices and possible tools
- Review of EU groundwater legislation and its implementation
- Natural groundwater occurrence and natural circumstances and processes
- Groundwater management and maintenance issues:
- Role of natural factors in groundwater management
- Different methods of groundwater abstraction and protection
- Groundwater treatment technologies
- Well ageing and maintenance
- Nitrate problems, etc.
- Groundwater modeling as a tool for groundwater assessment
- Aquifer restoration
- A spectrum of technical appendices for engineers, which address groundwater issues
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Half Title | 2 | ||
| Title | 4 | ||
| Copyright | 5 | ||
| Table of contents | 6 | ||
| Preface | 9 | ||
| Editors | 11 | ||
| Contributors | 13 | ||
| 1. Introduction | 16 | ||
| 2. Basic elements of groundwater management in large river basins | 21 | ||
| 2.1 DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE OF THIS CHAPTER | 21 | ||
| 2.2 STATUS OF GROUNDWATER AS A NATURAL RESOURCE | 24 | ||
| 2.2.1 Importance of groundwater | 24 | ||
| 2.2.2 Major indicators of a groundwater resource | 27 | ||
| Capacity of the resource | 27 | ||
| Capacity of the groundwater source | 27 | ||
| Yield stability | 27 | ||
| Groundwater resource quality | 28 | ||
| Groundwater source water quality and its stability | 28 | ||
| Groundwater source reliability | 29 | ||
| 2.2.3 Aerobic state of groundwater resources | 30 | ||
| 2.2.4 Classification of groundwater (re)sources | 32 | ||
| Classification of groundwater sources | 32 | ||
| Groundwater sources in fissured formations | 33 | ||
| Groundwater sources in karstic formations | 33 | ||
| Groundwater sources in alluvial formations | 33 | ||
| Groundwater sources in confined aquifers | 35 | ||
| Groundwater sources in coastal aquifers | 36 | ||
| Groundwater sources based on artificial infiltration | 37 | ||
| General comparison by type of groundwater source | 39 | ||
| 2.2.5 Relationship between the preservation of quality of groundwater resources and groundwater sources | 39 | ||
| Desirable threshold values | 39 | ||
| 2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS POTENTIAL IMPACT ON GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT | 43 | ||
| 2.4 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT | 46 | ||
| 2.5 GROUNDWATER LEGISLATION | 51 | ||
| 2.5.1 Water rights associated with groundwater | 51 | ||
| 2.5.2 Groundwater in international law | 51 | ||
| 2.5.3 EU legislation regarding groundwater | 54 | ||
| Groundwater Policy Framework under the WFD | 54 | ||
| Groundwater Directive | 56 | ||
| Other EU legislation relevant to groundwater | 56 | ||
| CIS Groundwater Working Group | 57 | ||
| 2.6 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT | 58 | ||
| Regulatory | 58 | ||
| Monitoring and information | 59 | ||
| Planning | 59 | ||
| Control | 59 | ||
| Incentive | 59 | ||
| Education and capacity-building | 60 | ||
| International global and regional cooperation | 60 | ||
| 2.7 BASIC GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES | 62 | ||
| 2.7.1 Protection of groundwater resources | 62 | ||
| Groundwater quality protection | 63 | ||
| Groundwater quantity protection | 65 | ||
| Protection of drinking water sources | 68 | ||
| Socio-economic aspect of groundwater resource protection activities | 73 | ||
| 2.7.2 Role of monitoring in the protection of groundwater resources (groundwater management) | 76 | ||
| Groundwater monitoring according to the WFD | 78 | ||
| Basic approach to the establishment of groundwater monitoring | 80 | ||
| 2.7.3 Use of groundwater | 82 | ||
| Use of groundwater for drinking water supply | 83 | ||
| Use of groundwater for irrigation | 84 | ||
| Use of groundwater for industrial water supply | 84 | ||
| 2.7.4 Control of the groundwater regime | 84 | ||
| 2.8 IMPLEMENTATION | 86 | ||
| Frameworks needed for the implementation of activities | 86 | ||
| Human society and its demands | 86 | ||
| Public participation | 87 | ||
| Social capacities | 88 | ||
| Provisions for implementation | 88 | ||
| Planning | 90 | ||
| Investment | 91 | ||
| Maintenance | 92 | ||
| Protection | 92 | ||
| 2.9 GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN THE LARGE RIVER BASINS | 92 | ||
| 2.9.1 Groundwater management in the Danube River Basin | 92 | ||
| 2.9.2 Nile River Basin | 96 | ||
| Main Nile Hydrogeological Province | 97 | ||
| Nubian Sandstone Artesian Basin | 97 | ||
| Upper Nile Artesian Basin | 98 | ||
| East African Hydrogeological Province | 99 | ||
| Victoria Artesian Basin | 99 | ||
| Tanganyika Artesian Basin | 99 | ||
| Congo Hydrogeological Province (Artesian Basin) | 100 | ||
| 2.10 GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED COUNTRIES | 102 | ||
| 2.10.1 Austria | 102 | ||
| Monitoring | 102 | ||
| Groundwater protection | 103 | ||
| Water supply | 103 | ||
| The implementation of the WFD in Austria | 104 | ||
| Transboundary groundwater bodies | 106 | ||
| 2.10.2 Serbia | 107 | ||
| Geological and hydrogeological conditions in Serbia | 107 | ||
| Groundwater use in Serbia: past and present | 107 | ||
| Specific problems and limitations in the use of groundwaters in Serbia | 111 | ||
| Groundwater monitoring in Serbia | 112 | ||
| Social and economic aspects of groundwater utilization | 114 | ||
| 2.10.3 Libya | 115 | ||
| General | 115 | ||
| Natural conditions | 116 | ||
| Geography: | 116 | ||
| Morphology: | 117 | ||
| Soil: | 117 | ||
| Geology and hydrogeology: | 118 | ||
| Climate: | 119 | ||
| Water resources | 120 | ||
| Groundwater: | 120 | ||
| Seawater and Brackish Water: | 121 | ||
| Water balance | 122 | ||
| Capital issues | 123 | ||
| 2.11 LOCAL GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT | 124 | ||
| 2.11.1 The Iron Gate reservoir | 124 | ||
| Introduction | 124 | ||
| Area affected by backwater and protection/monitoring facilities | 125 | ||
| Protection criteria and facilities | 127 | ||
| Protection criteria | 127 | ||
| Protection facilities | 127 | ||
| Ageing of protection facilities | 129 | ||
| Conclusion | 131 | ||
| 2.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 132 | ||
| 2.12.1 What are the objectives of groundwater management? | 133 | ||
| Groundwater management as part of water management | 133 | ||
| REFERENCES | 137 | ||
| 3. The self-purifying potential of an aquifer | 144 | ||
| 3.1 DEFINITION OF THE SELF-PURIFYING POTENTIAL OF AN AQUIFER | 144 | ||
| Definition | 144 | ||
| 3.2 AN AQUIFER IN CLASTIC SEDIMENTS, AS A MEDIUM FOR PURIFICATION PROCESSES | 151 | ||
| 3.2.1 Mineral composition | 152 | ||
| Aquifers formed in clastic's sediments (intergranular porosity aquifers) | 154 | ||
| Confined and unconfined aquifers | 154 | ||
| The types of intergranular aquifers, based on their genesis, include: | 154 | ||
| 3.2.2 Grain-size composition | 156 | ||
| 3.2.3 Porosity and effective porosity | 157 | ||
| Definitions | 157 | ||
| Definition 1: | 157 | ||
| Definition 2: | 158 | ||
| Definition 3: | 158 | ||
| Dependence of porosity on grain distribution | 159 | ||
| Dependence of porosity on grain-size uniformity | 160 | ||
| Relationship between effective porosity and porosity dependent on characteristic grain diameters | 160 | ||
| 3.2.4 Hydraulic conductivity | 161 | ||
| Dependence of hydraulic conductivity on viscosity and temperature | 163 | ||
| Dependence of hydraulic conductivity on soil pressure variation | 163 | ||
| 3.2.5 Heterogeneity and anisotropy of an aquifer’s seepage characteristics | 164 | ||
| 3.3 HYDRODYNAMIC DISPERSION | 165 | ||
| 3.3.1 Definition of diffusion | 165 | ||
| 3.3.2 Definition of hydrodynamic dispersion | 166 | ||
| 3.4 RELEVANCE OF SOIL PARTICLE SORPTION TO PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN AN AQUIFER | 168 | ||
| 3.4.1 Definition and basic observations | 168 | ||
| Definition | 168 | ||
| 3.4.2 Adsorption | 169 | ||
| 3.4.3 Adsorption isotherms | 171 | ||
| Langmuir’s adsorption model | 171 | ||
| The BET adsorption model | 173 | ||
| 3.4.5 Ion exchange | 174 | ||
| 3.4.6 Sorption and biodegradation | 176 | ||
| 3.4.7 Sorption of heavy metals by aquifer material at Žičko Polje in Kraljevo | 177 | ||
| Sorption isotherm tests | 178 | ||
| Testing the kinetics of sorption isotherms | 178 | ||
| Dynamic metal sorption experiments using skeleton material sampled from the Žičko polje aquifer | 180 | ||
| Relationship between the rates of propagation of sorbable solute and level of dissolved tracer in water | 182 | ||
| 3.5 BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES | 185 | ||
| 3.5.1 Introduction | 185 | ||
| 3.5.2 Microorganisms in the ground and in groundwater | 186 | ||
| 3.5.3 Cellular physiology (metabolism) | 187 | ||
| 3.5.4 Enzymes | 188 | ||
| 3.5.5 Biochemical kinetics and kinetics of microbial growth | 191 | ||
| Basic factors which govern microbial activity | 194 | ||
| The relationship between microorganisms and oxygen | 194 | ||
| Chemical composition of microorganisms (nutrients) | 194 | ||
| Temperature | 195 | ||
| pH | 195 | ||
| Redox potential, Eh | 196 | ||
| 3.5.7 Major biochemical processes in groundwater which involve inorganic substances | 196 | ||
| Sulfur and sulfur compounds | 196 | ||
| Nitrification and denitrification | 197 | ||
| Iron (Fе) and manganese (Mn) | 198 | ||
| 3.5.8 Biochemical processes involving organic substances | 199 | ||
| 3.6 THE EFFECT OF LAYERING ON THE DEFINITION OF AQUIFER DISPERSIVITY | 203 | ||
| Equivalent homogeneous aquifier and coefficient of equivalent dispersivity | 204 | ||
| Tracer test conducted at the Žičko polje groundwater source in thecity of Kraljevo, Serbia | 206 | ||
| Calculation results | 207 | ||
| Conclusions | 208 | ||
| 3.7 “IN SITU” INVESTIGATIONS TO DEFINE THE DEGRADATION OF PHENOLS IN GROUNDWATER | 209 | ||
| 3.7.1 Basic features of the monitoring and “in situ” tests | 209 | ||
| Phenol bio-oxidation pathways under aerobic conditions | 209 | ||
| Overview of basic monitoring and test features, applied analytical methods and results | 209 | ||
| LOCATION 1: Groundwater source in the city of Požega | 211 | ||
| LOCATION 2: The “Žičko polje” groundwater source, Kraljevo | 212 | ||
| “In situ” phenol transport test 2 (Tsub2, 1986) | 213 | ||
| “In situ” phenol transport test 4 (Tsub4, 1986) | 214 | ||
| Description | 214 | ||
| Results of the test 4 (Tsub4) | 214 | ||
| LOCATION 3: the “Mediana” groundwater source, Niš | 214 | ||
| “In situ” Test 5 (Tsub5) | 214 | ||
| 3.7.2 Conclusions | 216 | ||
| 3.8 REVITALIZATION OF AN ARTIFICIALLY - RECHARGED GROUNDWATER SOURCE: “MEDIANA” IN THE CITY OF NIŠ | 217 | ||
| 3.8.1 Development of the groundwater source through the year 1987 | 217 | ||
| 3.8.2 Pollution problem during the 1987-1994 period | 218 | ||
| 3.8.3 Applied remediation and protection methods | 219 | ||
| 3.8.4 Water quality assurance criteria-yield increase parameters | 220 | ||
| 3.8.5 Groundwater source capacity increase–effects of reconstruction | 221 | ||
| Major reconstruction components | 221 | ||
| Removal of calcified layers beneath infiltration lakes | 221 | ||
| Current performance of the groundwater source | 222 | ||
| 3.8.6 Concluding remarks about remediation, upgrading and the self-purifying potential of the “Mediana” groundwater source | 223 | ||
| REFERENCES | 226 | ||
| 4. Problems of groundwater source management and maintenance | 231 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 231 | ||
| 4.2 THE ORIGIN OF GROUNDWATER | 233 | ||
| 4.2.1 Introduction | 233 | ||
| 4.2.2 Creation of the chemical composition of groundwater | 234 | ||
| Groundwater components | 234 | ||
| 4.2.3 The origin of dissolved substances in groundwater | 236 | ||
| 4.2.4 Processes forming the chemical composition of groundwater | 238 | ||
| 4.2.5 The formation of organic substances in groundwater | 246 | ||
| 4.2.6 Hydrogeological classifications and their implications on the chemical composition of groundwater | 247 | ||
| 4.2.7 Migration of chemical elements in groundwater | 249 | ||
| 4.2.8 Distinctive characteristics of the chemical composition of groundwater in different lithological settings | 251 | ||
| 4.2.9 Characteristics of the chemical composition of groundwater in most frequently encountered types of rocks | 254 | ||
| 4.2.10 Variation in natural groundwater quality resulting from anthropogenous factors | 260 | ||
| 4.3 QUALITY OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES | 262 | ||
| 4.3.1 General | 262 | ||
| 4.3.2 Water quality parameters | 263 | ||
| 4.3.3 Physical parameters | 264 | ||
| 4.3.4 Chemical parameters | 267 | ||
| Non-specific parameters | 267 | ||
| Specific parameters | 275 | ||
| Macro components | 275 | ||
| Micro-components | 286 | ||
| Biological parameters | 289 | ||
| Radiological parameters | 289 | ||
| 4.3.5 Groundwater treatment technology | 290 | ||
| Basic treatment lines | 291 | ||
| Treatment line 1 – disinfection only | 292 | ||
| Treatment line 2 – filtration and disinfection | 295 | ||
| Treatment line 3 – aeration, filtration and disinfection | 295 | ||
| Treatment line 4 – “in line” coagulation, filtration and disinfection | 295 | ||
| Treatment line 5 – clarification and disinfection | 295 | ||
| Treatment line 6 – adsorbtion | 296 | ||
| Treatment line 7 – oxidation | 297 | ||
| 4.4 UTILIZATION OF SELF-PURIFICATION POTENTIAL IN THE DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION LINES AND PROTECTION ZONES OF INTERGRANULAR-AQUIFER GROUNDWATER SOURCES | 301 | ||
| 4.4.1 Several general questions relating to the use and protection of groundwater resources and sources | 301 | ||
| 4.4.2 Importance of self-purification processes in intergranular aquifers | 303 | ||
| 4.4.3 Role of purification by percolation in the design of groundwater sources | 303 | ||
| Characteristic solutes for the design of groundwater sources | 303 | ||
| General configurations of groundwater source production lines | 305 | ||
| Analysis of the effectiveness of percolation for continuous and “instant” (accidental) injection of a solute into the aquifer | 306 | ||
| 4.4.4 Instant (accidental) change in water quality | 307 | ||
| Change in maximum output concentration for instant injection of a tracer into a homogeneous aquifer, one-dimensional flow: Analytical solution | 308 | ||
| Importance of the coefficient of dispersivity in the definition of the production line of a groundwater source | 309 | ||
| 4.4.5 Continuous input of a solute into groundwater | 311 | ||
| 4.4.6 Synergy of purification processes within the aquifer and its application in groundwater source design | 313 | ||
| 4.4.7 Blocks of questions regarding the role of self-purification in the definition of a groundwater source concept | 314 | ||
| 4.4.8 Basic methodical approaches to the production line and source protection concepts | 315 | ||
| 4.4.9 Comment regarding research and investigations | 319 | ||
| Issues | 319 | ||
| 1. Non-homogeneity and anisotropy of hydrogeological parameters | 319 | ||
| 2. Sorption processes | 320 | ||
| 3. Degradation of a solute | 321 | ||
| 4. Dispersivity | 321 | ||
| 4.4.10 Preferred principles for the development of groundwater sources in intergranular aquifers | 322 | ||
| a) Principle of quality selection of a source | 322 | ||
| b) Principle of characteristic parameters | 322 | ||
| c) Principle of synergy | 323 | ||
| d) Three principles for conceptualizing the production line: | 323 | ||
| e) Principle of optimization of research and investigations | 324 | ||
| f) Principle of scale | 324 | ||
| g) Principle of gradual development of a groundwater source | 324 | ||
| h) Principle of sound monitoring | 324 | ||
| 4.5 BENEFITS OF RIVERBANK FILTRATION AND ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE: THE GERMAN EXPERIENCE | 325 | ||
| 4.5.1 Introduction | 325 | ||
| 4.5.2 Effects of riverbank filtration and artificial groundwater recharge | 330 | ||
| Removal of microbial contamination | 330 | ||
| Removal of organics and micropollutants | 331 | ||
| Behavior of inorganics | 337 | ||
| Temperature equalization | 337 | ||
| 4.5.3 Historical changes in Rhine water quality and their impact on riverbank filtrate characteristics | 339 | ||
| 4.5.4 Conclusions | 346 | ||
| 4.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL ATTENUATION PROCESSES FOR ORGANIC MICROPOLLUTANT REMOVAL DURING RIVERBANK FILTRATION | 347 | ||
| 4.6.1 Introduction | 347 | ||
| 4.6.2 Sorption processes | 348 | ||
| 4.6.3 Microbial degradation processes | 351 | ||
| 4.6.4 Transport mechanisms and dilution | 361 | ||
| 4.7 WELL-AGEING INDICATORS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BELGRADE GROUNDWATER SOURCE | 368 | ||
| 4.7.1 Criteria for the definition of structural elements of a water well | 368 | ||
| General criteria for a well’s operating mode | 369 | ||
| Maximum permissible flow velocities which guarantee seepage stability | 369 | ||
| Discussion of well entrance velocities | 373 | ||
| 4.7.2 Well-ageing | 374 | ||
| Corrosion of the well screen and casing | 374 | ||
| Well colmation | 375 | ||
| 4.7.3 Indicators of major well-ageing causes | 376 | ||
| Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) and Ryznar Stability Index (RSI) | 377 | ||
| Biochemical incrustation and corrosion | 378 | ||
| Synergy of colmation processes | 379 | ||
| 4.7.4 Well colmation indicators | 379 | ||
| 4.7.5 Well screen colmation indicators and consequences | 381 | ||
| 4.7.6 Radial well lateral-screen ageing at Belgrade groundwater source | 383 | ||
| Well yield | 386 | ||
| Relationship between well yield and certain physicochemical water parameters | 388 | ||
| Examples of Wells B-8 and B-4 | 390 | ||
| Well RB-8 | 390 | ||
| Well RB-4 | 395 | ||
| 4.7.7 Recommendations for the groundwater source/water well design engineer | 399 | ||
| 4.8 GROUNDWATER AND NITROGEN | 403 | ||
| 4.8.1 Nitrogen and legislation regarding its compounds in waters | 403 | ||
| 4.8.2 Nitrogen cycling and its transformations in the environment | 406 | ||
| Expect | 411 | ||
| 4.8.3 Nitrogen sources and pressures | 412 | ||
| Anthropogenic nitrogen sources | 413 | ||
| Examples of nitrate pressure in Europe | 414 | ||
| Designation of nitrate vulnerable zones | 417 | ||
| Assessment of groundwater quality and nitrogen load | 417 | ||
| Groundwater | 418 | ||
| Surface Water | 418 | ||
| Nitrogen balance | 419 | ||
| 4.8.4 Models for nitrates in the environment | 419 | ||
| Vadose zones and saturated groundwater models | 421 | ||
| Catchment scale models | 428 | ||
| 4.8.5 Vulnerability and monitoring | 431 | ||
| Vulnerability | 431 | ||
| Monitoring | 436 | ||
| Advanced methods for tracing nitrogen origin | 437 | ||
| 4.8.6 Management measures for nitrate pollution prevention and control of contamination | 441 | ||
| 4.9 EXAMPLES OF GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN AUSTRIA | 446 | ||
| 4.9.1 First full-scale advanced oxidation treatment plant for groundwater in Austria | 446 | ||
| Introduction | 446 | ||
| Methods | 446 | ||
| Results of pilot tests | 448 | ||
| Realization of the Project | 449 | ||
| 4.9.2 Karstic springs – the backbone of the Vienna water supply | 449 | ||
| Schematic representation of vulnerability hazards | 451 | ||
| REFERENCES | 453 | ||
| 5. Mathematical modeling, a tool forgroundwater regime management | 472 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 472 | ||
| 5.2 GROUNDWATER MODELING AND TYPES OF GROUNDWATER MODELS | 474 | ||
| Fundamental questions regarding model application | 478 | ||
| Engineering reasons for model application | 478 | ||
| 5.3 CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH AFFECT THE FORMULATION OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL | 480 | ||
| Spatiality of groundwater flow | 480 | ||
| Flow in an intergranular or fractured medium | 481 | ||
| Deterministic and stochastic models | 482 | ||
| Dimensionality of the model | 482 | ||
| Example of a pseudo 2D model as a simple tool for groundwater regime management | 483 | ||
| Saltwater intrusion | 484 | ||
| Additional recharge of a confined aquifer due to the compressibility of overlying and underlying strata | 485 | ||
| Modeling of substance transport by groundwater | 486 | ||
| Some questions when using certain software | 486 | ||
| 5.4 MODEL SCALE | 487 | ||
| 5.4.1 Scale and application of the continuum model | 487 | ||
| 5.4.2 Calculation time discretization | 489 | ||
| 5.5 MODEL CALIBRATION | 491 | ||
| 5.6 MODEL AND INVESTIGATIONS | 493 | ||
| 5.7 HYDRODYNAMIC PROBLEMS OF A GROUNDWATER SOURCE | 495 | ||
| 5.8 REGIONAL MODELS OF DEEP AQUIFERS | 498 | ||
| 5.8.1 Models of land subsidence due to groundwater abstraction | 498 | ||
| Groundwater source of the Town of Inđija, Serbia | 501 | ||
| Groundwater source at the Town of Ruma, Serbia | 502 | ||
| 5.8.2 Regional model of a deep geosynclinal aquifer | 503 | ||
| 5.9 REGIONAL AND LOCAL MODELS (CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE GROUNDWATER SOURCE) | 507 | ||
| 5.9.1 Belgrade groundwater source: regional model – capacity assessment | 508 | ||
| 5.9.2 Belgrade groundwater source: local model – well-ageing analysis | 510 | ||
| 5.10 MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR A SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE: GROUNDWATER MODELS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER VALLEY ALLUVIAL AQUIFER | 513 | ||
| 5.11 PSEUDO 2D MODEL FOR GROUNDWATER REGIME MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT IN RIPARIAN LANDS OF THE DANUBE RIVER | 519 | ||
| 5.12 KARST MODELS | 521 | ||
| 5.12.1 Stochastic approach: karst spring discharge curve model | 522 | ||
| 5.12.2 Deterministic approach: privileged pathway model | 526 | ||
| Storage | 529 | ||
| Infiltration of precipitation | 529 | ||
| REFERENCES: | 531 | ||
| 6. Large urban groundwater basins: Water quality threats and aquifer restoration | 535 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 535 | ||
| 6.2 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATEMENT | 538 | ||
| 6.2.1 Relative importance of groundwater as a water supply resource for urban areas | 538 | ||
| 6.3 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION | 543 | ||
| 6.3.1 Introduction | 543 | ||
| 6.3.2 Sources of groundwater contamination | 543 | ||
| 6.3.3 Fate and transport properties | 550 | ||
| 6.3.4 Emerging contaminants | 552 | ||
| 6.4 REGULATORY AND LIABILITY DRIVERSFOR RESTORATION | 555 | ||
| 6.4.1 Regulatory drivers – United States | 555 | ||
| 6.4.2 Regulatory drivers – European Union | 558 | ||
| 6.4.3 Liability drivers | 559 | ||
| 6.4.4 Technical impracticability | 559 | ||
| 6.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OFGROUNDWATER RESTORATION | 561 | ||
| 6.5.1 Introduction | 561 | ||
| 6.5.2 Contaminant distributions in the subsurface | 561 | ||
| 6.5.3 Restoration options | 563 | ||
| 6.5.4 Well-head treatment strategy | 565 | ||
| 6.5.5 Optimization issues from a societal perspective | 567 | ||
| 6.6 TECHNICAL OPTIONS FOR GROUNDWATER RESTORATION | 570 | ||
| 6.6.1 Introduction | 570 | ||
| 6.6.2 Chemical oxidation/reduction technologies | 573 | ||
| In-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) | 573 | ||
| In-situ chemical reduction | 578 | ||
| 6.6.3 In-situ biodegradation (ISB) | 579 | ||
| 6.6.4 Thermal technologies | 584 | ||
| Electrical resistance heating | 585 | ||
| Conductive heating (ISTD) | 585 | ||
| Steam enhanced extraction | 586 | ||
| 6.6.5 Status of Technologies for Source Remediation | 591 | ||
| 6.7 TECHNICAL LIMITATIONS OF GROUNDWATER RESTORATION | 595 | ||
| 6.7.1 Introduction | 595 | ||
| 6.7.2 Factors controlling rate of restoration | 595 | ||
| 6.7.3 Quantitative impacts of limitations on restoration time frames – unconsolidated aquifers | 597 | ||
| Batch flushing model | 598 | ||
| Two-box model illustrating the impact of low permeability horizons | 599 | ||
| Mobile – immobile porosity | 602 | ||
| Matrix Diffusion | 603 | ||
| 6.7.4 Quantitative impacts of limitations on restorationtime frames – NAPLs | 605 | ||
| Background | 605 | ||
| Rate of NAPL dissolution | 607 | ||
| Karst Aquifers | 610 | ||
| 6.7.5 Summary | 613 | ||
| 6.8 IMPLICATIONS FOR GROUNDWATER BASIN MANAGEMENT | 615 | ||
| 6.8.1 Summary and implications for groundwater basin management | 615 | ||
| REFERENCES | 617 | ||
| 7. Appendix: selected information and studies which would be useful to a groundwater engineer | 629 | ||
| 7.1 THE PLANET EARTH AND ITS CRUST | 629 | ||
| Introduction | 629 | ||
| Geometry of the Earth | 629 | ||
| Earth’s spheres | 630 | ||
| Earth’s density | 631 | ||
| Earth’s crust | 632 | ||
| Chemical and mineral composition of the Earth’s crust | 632 | ||
| Hydrosphere | 634 | ||
| Exogenic destructive processes | 635 | ||
| REFERENCE | 636 | ||
| 7.2 DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY USING GRAIN-SIZE DISTRIBUTION DATA* | 637 | ||
| 7.3 SELECTED PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUNDWATER | 645 | ||
| 7.4 MONITORING OF GROUNDWATER | 648 | ||
| 7.4.1 Introduction | 648 | ||
| Monitoring under the EU Water Framework Directive | 649 | ||
| On-line monitoring | 651 | ||
| 7.5 OVERVIEW ON ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN GROUNDWATER RESOURCES | 653 | ||
| 7.5.1 Chelating agents | 653 | ||
| Introduction | 653 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 654 | ||
| 7.5.2 Aromatic Sulfonates | 655 | ||
| Introduction | 655 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 657 | ||
| Perfluoroalkyl-carboxylates and - sulfonates | 658 | ||
| Introduction | 658 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic system | 659 | ||
| 7.5.3 Pharmaceuticals | 659 | ||
| Introduction | 659 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 660 | ||
| 7.5.4 X-ray contrast agents | 662 | ||
| Introduction | 662 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 663 | ||
| 7.5.5 Endocrine disrupting compounds | 665 | ||
| Introduction | 665 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 667 | ||
| 7.5.6 Fuel additives | 669 | ||
| Introduction | 669 | ||
| Occurrence and fate in aquatic systems | 670 | ||
| REFERENCES | 672 | ||
| REFERENCE | 704 | ||
| 7.6 REMARKS ON SOME SOLUTIONS OF THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL DISPERSION EQUATION | 705 | ||
| 7.6.1 Introduction | 705 | ||
| 7.6.2 List of symbols | 706 | ||
| 7.6.3 Mathematical model and analytical solutions | 706 | ||
| 7.6.4 Alternative formulation | 709 | ||
| 7.6.5 Results | 710 | ||
| 7.6.6 Conclusion | 717 | ||
| 7.6.7 Appendix | 718 | ||
| REFERENCES | 719 | ||
| Final remarks | 720 |