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Book Details
Abstract
Environmental Technologies to Treat Nitrogen Pollution provides a thorough understanding of the principles and applications of environmental technologies to treat nitrogen contamination. The main focus is on water and wastewater treatment, with additional coverage of leachates and off-gasses. The book brings together an up-to-date compilation of the main physical, chemical and biological processes demanded for the removal of nitrogenous contaminants from water, wastewater, leachates and off-gasses. It includes a series of chapters providing a deep and broad knowledge of the principles and applications required for the treatment of nitrogen pollution. Each chapter has been prepared by recognized specialists across the range of different aspects involved in the removal of nitrogenous contaminants from industrial discharges.
Environmental Technologies to Treat Nitrogen Pollution is the first book to provide a complete review of all the different processes used for the global management of nitrogen pollution. It also contains updated information about strategies to achieve nitrogen recovery and reuse in different industrial sectors. Several case studies document the application of different environmental technologies to manage nitrogen pollution.
This book will be of interest to lecturers and graduate students in the following subject areas: Environmental Engineering, Environmental Biotechnology, wastewater treatment plant design, water pollution control, contaminants recovery and reuse. The book will also be an attractive reference for environmental engineering consultants.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Half title | 1 | ||
| Series | 2 | ||
| Title | 3 | ||
| Copyright | 4 | ||
| Contents | 5 | ||
| List of Contributors | 17 | ||
| Preface | 23 | ||
| Chapter 1: Anthropogenic sources of N-pollutants and their impact on the environment and on public health | 27 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION | 27 | ||
| 1.2 MAJOR ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES OF NITROGENOUS POLLUTANTS | 29 | ||
| 1.2.1 Inorganic nitrogen pollution | 29 | ||
| 1.2.2 Organic nitrogen pollution | 29 | ||
| 1.3 IMPACT OF NITROGEN POLLUTION | 31 | ||
| 1.3.1 Ecological effects | 31 | ||
| 1.3.1.1 Acidification of freshwater ecosystems | 31 | ||
| 1.3.1.2 Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems | 33 | ||
| 1.3.2 Toxicological effects | 34 | ||
| 1.3.3 Effects on human health | 37 | ||
| 1.3.4 Effects on human economy | 39 | ||
| 1.4 APPROACHES TO PREVENT NITROGEN POLLUTION | 39 | ||
| 1.4.1 End-of-pipe treatments | 40 | ||
| 1.4.2 Cleaner production | 42 | ||
| 1.4.3 Industrial ecology | 43 | ||
| REFERENCES | 43 | ||
| Chapter 2: Principles of nitrifying processes | 49 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 49 | ||
| 2.2 BIOCHEMISTRY OF NITRIFICATION | 50 | ||
| 2.2.1 Ammonia oxidation | 50 | ||
| 2.2.2 Nitrite oxidation | 50 | ||
| 2.2.3 Equations including anabolism | 51 | ||
| 2.3 MICROBIOLOGY OF NITRIFICATION | 51 | ||
| 2.3.1 Ammonia oxidizers (AOB) | 51 | ||
| 2.3.2 Nitrite oxidizers (NOB) | 52 | ||
| 2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING NITRIFICATION | 52 | ||
| 2.4.1 Temperature | 53 | ||
| 2.4.2 pH | 54 | ||
| 2.4.3 Ammonium and FA concentrations | 55 | ||
| 2.4.4 Oxygen concentration | 55 | ||
| 2.4.5 Inhibiting compounds | 56 | ||
| 2.5 MODELLING | 57 | ||
| 2.5.1 Conventional one-step nitrification model | 57 | ||
| 2.5.2 Two-step nitrification model | 59 | ||
| 2.5.3 Advanced model including inhibition | 59 | ||
| REFERENCES | 63 | ||
| Chapter 3: Principles of denitrifying processes | 67 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 67 | ||
| 3.2 THE DENITRIFYING PROCESS | 69 | ||
| 3.2.1 Microbiology of denitrification | 69 | ||
| 3.2.2 Biochemistry of denitrification | 70 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 Nitrate reduction (NO⊂3&/sub;⊃−&/sup;) to nitrite (NO⊂2&/sub;⊃−&/sup;) | 71 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 Nitrite reduction (NO⊂2&/sub;⊃−&/sup;) to nitric oxide (NO) | 72 | ||
| 3.2.2.3 Nitric oxide reduction (NO) to nitrous oxide (N⊂2&/sub;O) | 73 | ||
| 3.2.2.4 Nitrous oxide reduction (N⊂2&/sub;O) to molecular nitrogen (N⊂2&/sub;) | 73 | ||
| 3.2.2.5 Genetic control for denitrifying enzymes | 74 | ||
| 3.2.3 Physiology of denitrification | 75 | ||
| 3.2.3.1 Effect of oxygen | 76 | ||
| 3.2.3.2 Effect of nitrogen oxides | 77 | ||
| 3.2.3.3 Effect of pH and temperature | 77 | ||
| 3.2.3.4 Effect of C/N ratio | 78 | ||
| 3.2.3.5 Alternative electron sources | 80 | ||
| 3.2.4 Mathematical model of denitrification | 82 | ||
| REFERENCES | 85 | ||
| Chapter 4: The ANAMMOX process | 93 | ||
| 4.1 DISCOVERY AND STOICHIOMETRY | 93 | ||
| 4.2 THERMODYNAMIC AND KINETIC PARAMETERS | 95 | ||
| 4.3 BIOCHEMISTRY | 96 | ||
| 4.4 MICROBIOLOGY | 97 | ||
| 4.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ANAMMOX PROCESS | 99 | ||
| 4.5.1 Effect of temperature | 99 | ||
| 4.5.2 Effect of pH | 101 | ||
| 4.5.3 Effect of substrate and product concentrations | 101 | ||
| 4.5.4 Effect of oxygen | 103 | ||
| 4.5.5 Effect of inhibitors | 104 | ||
| 4.5.6 Effect of shear stress | 106 | ||
| 4.6 ANAMMOX SPECIFIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES | 106 | ||
| 4.6.1 Detection | 106 | ||
| 4.6.2 Anammox activity measurements | 107 | ||
| 4.6.2.1 Methods based in measurements in the liquid phase | 107 | ||
| 4.6.2.2 Methods based in measurements in the gas phase | 108 | ||
| 4.7 MODELLING | 108 | ||
| 4.7.1. Simulation of experimental data | 111 | ||
| 4.7.2. Simulations without experimental data | 111 | ||
| 4.7.2.1. Key parameters | 111 | ||
| 4.7.2.2. Effect of COD | 112 | ||
| 4.7.2.3. Sloughing | 112 | ||
| REFERENCES | 113 | ||
| Chapter 5: Environmental technologies to remove nitrogen from municipal wastewaters | 119 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 119 | ||
| 5.2 SUSPENDED BIOMASS PROCESSES | 120 | ||
| 5.2.1 Reactor configurations and treatment concepts | 120 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Multi tank activated sludge process | 120 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Alternated aerated activated sludge | 121 | ||
| 5.2.1.3 Sequencing batch reactors | 122 | ||
| 5.2.2 Processes and design criteria | 123 | ||
| 5.2.2.1 Nitrification and aerobic volume | 123 | ||
| 5.2.2.2 Oxygen demand | 125 | ||
| 5.2.2.3 Effluent denitrification | 126 | ||
| 5.3 BIOFILM PROCESSES | 128 | ||
| 5.3.1 Reactor configurations and treatment concepts | 128 | ||
| 5.3.1.1 Trickling filters | 128 | ||
| 5.3.1.2 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) | 129 | ||
| 5.3.1.3 Submerged biofilters | 129 | ||
| 5.3.1.4 Moving-Bed Bioreactors (MBBR) | 130 | ||
| 5.3.1.5 Hybrid processes | 130 | ||
| 5.3.2 Design criteria | 131 | ||
| 5.3.2.1 Trickling filters | 131 | ||
| 5.3.2.2 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) | 132 | ||
| 5.3.2.3 Submerged biofilters | 132 | ||
| 5.3.2.4 Moving-Bed Bioreactors (MBBR) | 134 | ||
| 5.3.2.5 Hybrid processes | 134 | ||
| 5.3.3 Case study: Frederikshavn central wastewater treatment plant (Denmark) (Thogersen and Hansen 2000) | 135 | ||
| REFERENCES | 139 | ||
| Chapter 6: Environmental technologies to remove nitrogen from high-strength wastewaters | 141 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 141 | ||
| 6.2 TYPES OF WASTEWATER | 143 | ||
| 6.2.1 Reject water – sludge liquor from mesophilic digestion | 143 | ||
| 6.2.2 Liquors from (thermophilic) digestion of high solids streams | 144 | ||
| 6.2.3 Landfill leachates | 145 | ||
| 6.2.4 (Agro-) industrial effluents | 145 | ||
| 6.3 REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS AND TREATMENT CONCEPTS | 146 | ||
| 6.3.1 Physical-chemical side-stream treatment options | 146 | ||
| 6.3.2 Biological treatment options | 147 | ||
| 6.4 DESIGN CRITERIA | 151 | ||
| 6.4.1 Design considerations for SBRs (suspended growth) | 152 | ||
| 6.4.2 Design of chemostats (suspended growth) | 154 | ||
| 6.4.3 Design of moving bed systems (attached growth) | 154 | ||
| 6.5 CASE STUDIES | 155 | ||
| 6.5.1 Case Study: DEMON⊃®&/sup; deammonification process | 155 | ||
| 6.5.2 Case Study: Biofilm deammonification (Hattingen) | 157 | ||
| 6.5.3 Case Study: Bioaugmentation using the AT-3 Process | 159 | ||
| REFERENCES | 161 | ||
| Chapter 7: Environmental technologies to remove recalcitrant N-pollutants from wastewaters | 165 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 165 | ||
| 7.2 TEXTILE WASTEWATER | 166 | ||
| 7.2.1 Introduction | 166 | ||
| 7.2.2 Environmental problems associated with the discharge of textile wastewaters | 168 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Bioaccumulation | 169 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Toxicity of dyestuffs | 169 | ||
| 7.2.3 Characterisation of textile wastewaters | 170 | ||
| 7.2.4 Technologies for the treatment of textile wastewaters | 172 | ||
| 7.2.4.1 Biological wastewater treatment systems | 173 | ||
| 7.2.4.2 Non-Biological wastewater treatment systems | 187 | ||
| Physical-chemical methods | 187 | ||
| Chemical Methods | 187 | ||
| Physical Methods | 189 | ||
| 7.2.5 Case study: Biological treatment of textile wastewater | 190 | ||
| 7.2.5.1 Description | 190 | ||
| 7.2.5.2 WWTP set-up and performance | 191 | ||
| 7.3 EXPLOSIVE WASTE TREATMENT | 193 | ||
| 7.3.1 Introduction | 193 | ||
| 7.3.2 Characterisation of wastewaters containing explosives | 194 | ||
| 7.3.2.1 Explosives | 195 | ||
| 7.3.2.2 Propellants | 196 | ||
| 7.3.2.3 Pyrotechnics | 197 | ||
| 7.3.3 Treatment technologies for wastewaters containing explosives | 197 | ||
| 7.3.3.1 Adsorption | 197 | ||
| 7.3.3.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) | 198 | ||
| 7.3.3.3 Chemical reduction | 199 | ||
| 7.3.3.4 Biological treatment processes | 200 | ||
| 7.3.4 Case study: Biological treatment of explosive process wastewater | 200 | ||
| 7.3.4.1 Description | 200 | ||
| 7.3.4.2 Pilot plant set-up and performance | 201 | ||
| 7.3.4.3 Cost comparison | 202 | ||
| 7.4 WASTEWATERS CONTAINING PHARMACEUTICALS | 203 | ||
| 7.4.1 Introduction | 203 | ||
| 7.4.2 Biological treatment processes | 206 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 206 | ||
| REFERENCES | 207 | ||
| Chapter 8: Environmental technologies to remove nitrogen from contaminated leachates | 217 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 217 | ||
| 8.2 SOURCE OF NITROGEN CONTAMINATED LEACHATES | 218 | ||
| 8.3 NITROGEN REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES | 221 | ||
| 8.4 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES | 222 | ||
| 8.4.1 Nitrification-denitrification | 223 | ||
| 8.4.1.1 SBR | 225 | ||
| 8.4.1.2 Lagoons | 226 | ||
| 8.4.1.3 Membrane bioreactors | 227 | ||
| 8.4.1.4 Denitrification | 228 | ||
| 8.4.1.5 Attached growth | 230 | ||
| 8.4.2 Nitritation-denitritation | 232 | ||
| 8.4.3 Nitritation-Anammox process | 233 | ||
| 8.5 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES | 234 | ||
| 8.5.1 Ion-exchange | 234 | ||
| 8.5.2 Ammonia stripping | 236 | ||
| 8.5.3 Struvite precipitation | 237 | ||
| 8.5.4 Membrane separation | 238 | ||
| 8.5.5 Chemical oxidation | 240 | ||
| 8.6 WETLANDS AND OTHER NATURAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS | 243 | ||
| 8.7 IN SITU APPLICATIONS | 247 | ||
| 8.8 CASE STUDIES | 249 | ||
| 8.8.1 SBR and reed bed combination (Robinson and Olufsen, 2007) | 249 | ||
| 8.8.2 Upgrading aerated lagoon to nitrification and GAC combination (Hercule et al. 2003) | 251 | ||
| 8.8.3 MBR and RO combination (Hercule et al. 2003) | 253 | ||
| REFERENCES | 255 | ||
| Chapter 9: Nitrogen recovery via struvite production | 265 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 265 | ||
| 9.2 STRUVITE FORMATION | 266 | ||
| 9.2.1 Brief history | 266 | ||
| 9.2.2 Applicability of struvite precipitation to N-rich wastewaters | 267 | ||
| 9.3 PROCESS FUNDAMENTALS | 268 | ||
| 9.3.1 Struvite solubility | 269 | ||
| 9.3.2 Struvite precipitation | 273 | ||
| 9.4 PROCESS PARAMETERS | 275 | ||
| 9.4.1 Effect of pH | 275 | ||
| 9.4.2 Effect of temperature | 276 | ||
| 9.4.3 Effect of TSS | 276 | ||
| 9.4.4 Effect of chemical composition of the wastewater | 277 | ||
| 9.4.4.1 Concentrations of constituent ions | 277 | ||
| 9.4.4.2 The phases for struvite precipitation | 280 | ||
| 9.4.4.3 Presence of other counter-reacting ions | 280 | ||
| 9.5 STRUVITE QUALITY | 282 | ||
| 9.5.1 Composition of struvite | 282 | ||
| 9.5.2 NH⊂4&/sub;⊃+&/sup;-N Incorporation into struvite | 283 | ||
| 9.5.3 Struvite crystal size | 285 | ||
| 9.6 ECONOMICAL ASPECTS | 286 | ||
| 9.7 TECHNOLOGIES | 287 | ||
| 9.7.1 General considerations | 287 | ||
| 9.7.2 Case study – REM-NUT⊃®&/sup; | 287 | ||
| 9.7.3 Acknowledgements | 290 | ||
| REFERENCES | 290 | ||
| Chapter 10: Ion Exchange processes for Ammonium Removal | 295 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 295 | ||
| 10.2 ION EXCHANGE MATERIALS | 296 | ||
| 10.2.1 Zeolites as ion exchangers | 296 | ||
| 10.2.2 Structure, properties and classification of zeolites | 298 | ||
| 10.3 ION EXCHANGE | 300 | ||
| 10.3.1 Principles | 301 | ||
| 10.4 EQUIILIBRIUM STUDIES | 302 | ||
| 10.5 DYNAMIC ION EXCHANGE | 306 | ||
| 10.6 PROCESS PERFORMANCE AND MEDIA CAPACITY | 308 | ||
| 10.6.1 Breakthrough concentration | 309 | ||
| 10.6.2 Contact time | 309 | ||
| 10.6.3 Solution strength | 311 | ||
| 10.6.3.1 Final effluent treatment | 311 | ||
| 10.6.3.2 Digested sludge liquor treatment | 313 | ||
| 10.6.4 Regeneration | 315 | ||
| 10.7 SUMMARY | 316 | ||
| 10.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 316 | ||
| REFERENCES | 317 | ||
| Chapter 11: Denitrification of industrial flue gases | 321 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 321 | ||
| 11.1.1 Sources of NO⊂x&/sub; | 322 | ||
| 11.1.2 Removal of nitrogen oxides | 323 | ||
| 11.2 CHEMICAL NO⊂x&/sub; REMOVAL TECHNIQUES | 326 | ||
| 11.2.1 Selective catalytic reduction | 326 | ||
| 11.2.2 Electrochemical NO⊂x&/sub; removal techniques | 326 | ||
| 11.3 BIOLOGICAL NO⊂x&/sub; REMOVAL TECHNIQUES | 327 | ||
| 11.3.1 Nitrification | 328 | ||
| 11.3.2 Denitrification | 329 | ||
| 11.3.3 Nitric oxide removal by algae | 331 | ||
| 11.3.4 Evaluation of NO removal techniques | 331 | ||
| 11.4 THE BIODENOX CONCEPT | 332 | ||
| 11.4.1 Flue gas denitrification by aqueous Fe(II)EDTA⊃2−&/sup; solutions | 332 | ||
| 11.4.2 Iron dependent nitric oxide reduction | 335 | ||
| 11.4.2.1 Fe(II)EDTA⊃2−&/sup; as electron donor | 335 | ||
| 11.4.2.2 Fe(II)EDTA⊃2−&/sup; - enzyme interactions | 336 | ||
| 11.4.3 Regeneration capacity of BioDeNOx reactors: iron reduction | 337 | ||
| REFERENCES | 339 | ||
| Chapter 12: Autotrophic denitrification for the removal of nitrogenous and sulphurous contaminants from wastewaters | 345 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 345 | ||
| 12.1.1 Basic concept of autotrophic denitrification | 345 | ||
| 12.1.2 Sulphur based denitrification | 347 | ||
| 12.1.3 Applications and limitations | 349 | ||
| 12.2 INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION BY NITROGENOUS AND SULPHUROUS COMPOUNDS | 350 | ||
| 12.2.1 Industrial wastewaters containing nitrogenous and sulphurous compounds | 350 | ||
| 12.2.2 Feasibility of co-treating wastewater containing nitrate and sulphur | 351 | ||
| 12.3 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFICATION | 355 | ||
| 12.3.1 Denitrifying microorganisms | 355 | ||
| 12.3.2 Autotrophic denitrifiers | 355 | ||
| 12.4 BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFICATION | 358 | ||
| 12.4.1 Genes, enzymes and pathways | 358 | ||
| 12.4.1.1 Nitrogen oxides reduction | 358 | ||
| 12.4.1.2 Sulphur oxidation | 359 | ||
| 12.4.2 Autotrophic denitrification | 361 | ||
| 12.4.3 Energetics of autotrophic denitrification | 364 | ||
| 12.5 KINETIC STUDIES OF AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFICATION | 365 | ||
| 12.5.1 General kinetic considerations for autotrophic denitrification | 365 | ||
| 12.5.2 Kinetic model for biofilm (Sulphur-lime packed-bed reactor) | 366 | ||
| 12.5.3 Kinetic model for suspended growth (Thiosulphate or sulphide as electron donor) | 370 | ||
| 12.6 PERFORMANCE OF AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFYING SYSTEMS | 372 | ||
| 12.6.1 Performance of denitrifying systems under autotrophic conditions | 372 | ||
| 12.6.2 Performance of denitrifying systems under mixotrophic conditions | 374 | ||
| 12.6.3 Design criteria | 374 | ||
| 12.6.3.1 UASB and EGSB systems | 374 | ||
| 12.6.3.2 Fluidised bed reactors | 377 | ||
| 12.6.3.3 Completely mixed systems | 379 | ||
| 12.6.4 Case study: Sulphide removal from oil-refining wastewater via autotrophic denitrification (Vaiopoulou et al. 2005) | 380 | ||
| 12.6.4.1 Description | 380 | ||
| 12.6.4.2 Pilot plant set-up and performance | 381 | ||
| 12.6.4.3 Full-scale implementation and benefits | 381 | ||
| 12.7 KEY OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS IN AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFYING REACTORS | 382 | ||
| 12.7.1 Type and concentration of electron donor | 382 | ||
| 12.7.2 Nitrogen and sulphur loading rates | 383 | ||
| 12.7.3 HRT | 384 | ||
| 12.7.4 Temperature | 384 | ||
| 12.7.5 pH | 385 | ||
| 12.7.6 Mass transfer limitations | 387 | ||
| 12.7.7 S/N ratio | 387 | ||
| 12.7.8 C/N ratio | 388 | ||
| 12.8 SUMMARY | 389 | ||
| REFERENCES | 391 | ||
| Chapter 13: Nitrogen removal in aerobic granular systems | 399 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 399 | ||
| 13.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF AEROBIC GRANULATION | 401 | ||
| 13.2.1 Type of reactors | 401 | ||
| 13.2.2 Operational conditions | 402 | ||
| 13.2.2.1 Substrate composition | 402 | ||
| 13.2.2.2 Feast-Famine regime | 403 | ||
| 13.2.2.3 Hydrodynamic shear force | 403 | ||
| 13.2.2.4 Short settling times | 404 | ||
| 13.3 NITROGEN REMOVAL IN AEROBIC GRANULES | 405 | ||
| 13.3.1 Biological processes in aerobic granules | 405 | ||
| 13.3.2 Characteristics of the granular biomass | 407 | ||
| 13.4 PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE NITROGEN REMOVAL IN AEROBIC GRANULAR SYSTEMS | 408 | ||
| 13.4.1 DO concentration | 408 | ||
| 13.4.2 Organic matter content | 409 | ||
| 13.4.3 pH | 410 | ||
| 13.4.4 Bicarbonate | 411 | ||
| 13.4.5 Temperature | 411 | ||
| 13.5 DISTRIBUTION OF MICROBIAL POPULATIONS INSIDE THE GRANULES | 412 | ||
| 13.6 MODELLING OF AEROBIC GRANULAR SYSTEMS | 415 | ||
| 13.7 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS | 419 | ||
| 13.7.1 Laboratory research in aerobic granular sludge | 419 | ||
| 13.7.2 Pilot research in aerobic granular sludge | 420 | ||
| REFERENCES | 422 | ||
| Index | 429 |