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Abstract
The best papers from the three-day conference on Safe Drinking Water from Source to Tap June 2009 in Maastricht are published in this book covering the themes of challenges of the water sector and adaptive strategies, treatment, distribution, risk assessment and risk management, sensors and monitoring, small scale systems, simulation, alternative water supply & sources, consumer involvement, and future drinking water. Worldwide, the water supply sector is facing tremendous challenges. Every new emerging contaminants and pathogens and aging infrastructures that are vulnerable for deliberate contamination pose a threat to the quality of water supplies. Shortage of good quality and readily treatable resources is increasing due to global warming, urbanisation and pollution from agriculture and industry. Regulators and consumers are becoming more demanding.
Techneau - the largest European project on drinking water - addresses these challenges by developing adaptive supply system options and new and improved treatment and monitoring technologies. Future system options to be studied are flexible, small scale and multi-source supplies, utilising non conventional resources like brackish ground water, treated wastewater and urban groundwater.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Half title | 1 | ||
| Title | 3 | ||
| Copyright | 4 | ||
| Table of Contents | 5 | ||
| Preface | 9 | ||
| Challenges of the Water Sector | 11 | ||
| TECHNEAU – a collective effort towards safe water supply | 13 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 13 | ||
| Objectives | 14 | ||
| Integrated approach to the design and operation of the water supply chain | 14 | ||
| Novel and improved technologies for water treatment and water quality monitoring | 14 | ||
| Modelling and improved operational practices | 14 | ||
| Widespread communication and dissemination | 14 | ||
| METHODOLOGY | 15 | ||
| KEY RESULTS | 16 | ||
| Rethinking the system: challenges, trends and adaptation of water supply | 16 | ||
| Treatment technologies for high quality water supply | 17 | ||
| Sensors and monitoring | 19 | ||
| Risk assessment and risk management | 19 | ||
| Operation and maintenance | 20 | ||
| Consumer acceptance and trust | 21 | ||
| Integration, validation and demonstration | 22 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 23 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 23 | ||
| REFERENCES | 23 | ||
| Highlights from EU Research | 25 | ||
| Water management in the city of the future | 27 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 27 | ||
| FUTURE CHALLENGES | 28 | ||
| Climate change | 28 | ||
| Population growth and urbanization | 29 | ||
| Deterioration of infrastructure systems | 30 | ||
| SWITCH: INNOVATION IN URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT | 30 | ||
| SWITCH RESEARCH PROCESS | 31 | ||
| SWITCH – KEY CONCEPTS | 33 | ||
| Resilience of urban water systems to global change pressures | 33 | ||
| Interventions over the entire urban water cycle | 34 | ||
| Reconsider water use | 35 | ||
| Natural treatment systems | 35 | ||
| Decentralised wastewater systems | 36 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 37 | ||
| REFERENCES | 37 | ||
| RECLAIM WATER – managed aquifer recharge for safe indirect potable reuse | 39 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 39 | ||
| The RECLAIM WATER project and its objectives | 41 | ||
| APPROACH | 42 | ||
| KEY RESULTS | 43 | ||
| Water reclamation technologies | 43 | ||
| Microbial contaminants in aquifer recharge schemes | 46 | ||
| Chemical contaminants in aquifer recharge schemes | 46 | ||
| Hydro-geochemical characterisation of aquifer recharge | 46 | ||
| Integration of results in risk assessment and management | 46 | ||
| DISSEMINATION AND FURTHER INFORMATION | 47 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 47 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 47 | ||
| REFERENCES | 47 | ||
| ACQWA – water resources in mountain regions sensitive to climatic change | 51 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 51 | ||
| Objectives | 52 | ||
| METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH | 52 | ||
| EXPECTED RESULTS | 53 | ||
| Model areas | 53 | ||
| Water of mountain systems – an interdisciplinary investigation | 54 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 57 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 57 | ||
| REFERENCES | 57 | ||
| Water Treatment | 59 | ||
| Development of advanced treatment trains and decision support tools to meet future drinking water challenges | 61 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 61 | ||
| WATER QUALITY CHALLENGES | 62 | ||
| FROM PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE TO THE DESIGN OF OPTIMISED TREATMENT TRAINS | 65 | ||
| Natural organic matter removal: practical experience | 65 | ||
| TOC/DOC removal as measured with traditional analytical methods | 65 | ||
| Organic matter removal as analysed with advanced analytical techniques | 66 | ||
| Emerging micropollutants: practical experience | 68 | ||
| Designing the most appropriate treatment train | 70 | ||
| Disposal and Treatment of concentrate | 72 | ||
| DEVELOPING DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS | 72 | ||
| Life Cycle Assessment methodology | 72 | ||
| Presentation of the Eolia⊃TM Potable Water tool | 73 | ||
| Case studies | 74 | ||
| Identification of impact sources and penalizing processes | 74 | ||
| Benchmark between technical alternatives | 74 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 76 | ||
| REFERENCES | 76 | ||
| Development and evaluation of a new concept for drinking water treatment: the OBM process | 79 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 79 | ||
| METHODS | 81 | ||
| Experimental set-up | 81 | ||
| Analyses | 82 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 83 | ||
| Ozonation | 83 | ||
| Effect of the type of mixer | 83 | ||
| Effect of the packing media | 84 | ||
| Effect of water qualities | 85 | ||
| NOM ozonation | 86 | ||
| Biofiltration | 87 | ||
| Membrane filtration | 89 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 90 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 90 | ||
| REFERENCES | 90 | ||
| Direct and hybrid ceramic membrane filtration in water treatment | 93 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 93 | ||
| BACKGROUND | 94 | ||
| DIRECT CERAMIC MF/UF | 96 | ||
| Materials and methods | 96 | ||
| Results and discussion | 97 | ||
| COAGULATION FOLLOWED BY CERAMIC MF/UF | 99 | ||
| Materials and methods | 99 | ||
| Results and discussion | 100 | ||
| ACTIVATED CARBON TREATMENT FOLLOWED BY CERAMIC MF/UF | 102 | ||
| Materials and methods | 102 | ||
| Results and discussion | 103 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 104 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 105 | ||
| REFERENCES | 105 | ||
| Treatment of NF concentrates: organic micropollutant and NOM removal | 109 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 109 | ||
| METHODS | 110 | ||
| Membrane concentrates | 110 | ||
| Adsorption | 111 | ||
| Oxidation by ozone and combination of PAC and O⊂3 | 112 | ||
| Quantitative analysis of pesticides and NOM | 112 | ||
| Biological treatment | 112 | ||
| GAC physical adsorption | 114 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 114 | ||
| Adsorption, oxidation and carbozone | 114 | ||
| Biological treatment | 116 | ||
| GAC physical filtration | 118 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 120 | ||
| REFERENCES | 121 | ||
| Applications of quantitative structureactivity relationships for rejection modelling of organic solutes by nanofiltration membranes | 123 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 123 | ||
| METHODS | 124 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 126 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 128 | ||
| REFERENCES | 129 | ||
| Function and relevance of aquifer recharge techniques to enable sustainable water resources management in developing or newly-industrialized countries | 131 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 131 | ||
| APPLICATION OF AR AND BF AS DRINKING WATER (PRE-)TREATMENT WORLDWIDE | 133 | ||
| CHALLENGES IN NEWLY-INDUSTRIALIZED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES | 135 | ||
| CASE STUDY NEW DELHI (INDIA) | 137 | ||
| VULNERABILITY OF BF TO CLIMATE CHANGE | 138 | ||
| SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS | 140 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 141 | ||
| REFERENCES | 142 | ||
| Sensors and Monitoring | 143 | ||
| State-of-the-art in drinking water monitoring | 145 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 145 | ||
| CHEMICAL PARAMETERS | 146 | ||
| MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS | 148 | ||
| EFFECT-RELATED ANALYSIS | 149 | ||
| ON-LINE MONITORING | 150 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 152 | ||
| REFERENCES | 152 | ||
| Comparison between conventional and comprehensive GC for the search of 58 target compounds and screening of undesirable pollutants in an environmental complex matrix | 155 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 155 | ||
| EXPERIMENTAL | 159 | ||
| Samples | 159 | ||
| Instruments | 160 | ||
| Analytical conditions | 160 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 160 | ||
| Separation of 58 target compounds: GC versus GC × GC | 160 | ||
| Analysis of an environmental complex matrix:GC/MS versus GC × GC-TOFMS | 163 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 166 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 167 | ||
| REFERENCES | 167 | ||
| Advances in microbiological methods for drinking water analysis: flow cytometry, assimilable organic carbon and pathogen growth potential | 169 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 169 | ||
| FLOW CYTOMETRY: RAPID ANALYSIS OF BACTERIAL CELLS | 170 | ||
| How does flow cytometry work? | 170 | ||
| Straightforward applications in drinking water research | 172 | ||
| Analysis of disinfection processes during treatment | 172 | ||
| Quantification of bacterial growth during biofiltration processes | 172 | ||
| Quantification of growth in distribution networks and household installations | 172 | ||
| Data from a full-scale drinking water system | 173 | ||
| Correlation with other microbiological parameters | 174 | ||
| Future of FCM: challenges and cautions | 175 | ||
| AN ALTERNATIVE ASSIMILABLE ORGANIC CARBON (AOC) ASSAY | 176 | ||
| Principle of the AOC method | 176 | ||
| Adopting a new AOC method | 177 | ||
| Applications of AOC analysis | 177 | ||
| PATHOGEN GROWTH POTENTIAL (PGP) ASSAY | 178 | ||
| Principle of the PGP assay | 178 | ||
| Example: the PGP assay on samples from full-scale water treatment | 179 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 179 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 180 | ||
| REFERENCES | 180 | ||
| Use of effect-directed assays in assessing the quality of drinking water and its sources | 183 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 183 | ||
| SELECTION OF RELEVANT IN VITRO EFFECT-DIRECTED ASSAYS | 184 | ||
| COMPARING ROBUSTNESS AND SENSITIVITY OF VARIOUS IN VITRO EFFECT ASSAYS | 186 | ||
| Effect assays for endocrine disruption | 186 | ||
| Effect assays for genotoxicity | 188 | ||
| APPLICATION IN DRINKING WATER AND ITS SOURCES AND UNRAVELLING RESPONSIBLE COMPOUNDS | 189 | ||
| INTERPRETATION OF EFFECT ASSAYS IN TERM OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS | 190 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 191 | ||
| REFERENCES | 191 | ||
| The versatility of online UV/Vis-spectrometry – an overview | 195 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 195 | ||
| UV/VIS SPECTROMETER | 196 | ||
| DEVELOPMENT OF SPECTRAL ALGORITHMS | 197 | ||
| TECHNEAU APPLICATIONS, AN OVERVIEW | 198 | ||
| NEW MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS – OZONE | 198 | ||
| New measurement parameters – assimilable organic carbon | 200 | ||
| DATA EVALUATION AND WATER QUALITY ALARMS | 201 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 203 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 204 | ||
| REFERENCES | 205 | ||
| Risk Assessment and Risk Management | 207 | ||
| International outlook on WSP tools and standards | 209 | ||
| EXTENDED ABSTRACT | 209 | ||
| REFERENCES | 211 | ||
| Quantitative risk assessments of water supply systems from source to tap | 213 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 213 | ||
| THE GOTEBORG DRINKING WATER SYSTEM | 215 | ||
| METHOD | 217 | ||
| Conceptual model | 217 | ||
| The fault tree model | 218 | ||
| Customer Minutes Lost (CML) and risk | 220 | ||
| Uncertainty analysis | 221 | ||
| Water safety targets in Goteborg | 221 | ||
| RISK-REDUCTION ALTERNATIVES | 221 | ||
| RESULTS | 222 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 223 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 224 | ||
| REFERENCES | 225 | ||
| TECHNEAU hazard database and risk reduction option database | 227 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 227 | ||
| DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNEAU HAZARD DATABASE | 229 | ||
| Structure of the TECHNEAU hazard database | 229 | ||
| Testing of the TECHNEAU hazard database | 230 | ||
| DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNEAU RISK REDUCTION OPTIONS DATABASE | 234 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 236 | ||
| REFERENCES | 236 | ||
| Risk assessment case study 1: Breznice, Czech Republic | 239 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 239 | ||
| METHODS | 240 | ||
| System description | 242 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 242 | ||
| Hazard identification and risk assessment | 242 | ||
| Sensitivity analysis | 245 | ||
| Method evaluation | 245 | ||
| Lessons learned | 245 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 247 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 247 | ||
| REFERENCES | 247 | ||
| Risk assessment case study 2: Upper Mnyameni, South Africa | 249 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 249 | ||
| Aims of the study | 250 | ||
| Risk methods used | 250 | ||
| System description of Upper mnyameni drinking water supply | 251 | ||
| Raw water source | 252 | ||
| Treatment processes | 252 | ||
| Distribution | 253 | ||
| Operation | 253 | ||
| RISK ANALYSIS | 254 | ||
| Hazard identification | 254 | ||
| Risk estimation and presentation of risks with risk matrices | 255 | ||
| Risk Matrix 1 – health effects | 256 | ||
| Risk Matrix 2 – number of people affected | 256 | ||
| Risk Matrix 3 – total risk matrix | 256 | ||
| Sensitivity analysis | 257 | ||
| RISK EVALUATION | 257 | ||
| Risk tolerability | 257 | ||
| Risk reduction options | 257 | ||
| Risk estimation with South African Risk Evaluation Guidelines | 259 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 260 | ||
| Method evaluation | 260 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 261 | ||
| REFERENCES | 261 | ||
| Distribution | 263 | ||
| Conceptual model for discolouration in drinking water systems: Who’s to blame and what to do? | 265 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 265 | ||
| EXTENDED CONCEPTUAL MODEL: THE HYPOTHESIS ON WHAT TO DO | 267 | ||
| METHODS | 269 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 270 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 272 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 273 | ||
| REFERENCES | 273 | ||
| Water treatment: optimization with respect to what? | 275 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 275 | ||
| OPTIMIZATION OF OPERATION PERFORMANCEOF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS | 278 | ||
| Optimization of coagulation and filtration operation performance | 279 | ||
| OPTIMIZATION EFFORTS: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 279 | ||
| Pathogen removal and treatment barriers | 280 | ||
| NOM fractionation and removal of NOM fractions | 280 | ||
| NOM fractions and biodegradability | 283 | ||
| Coagulant residuals and particle/turbidity removal | 284 | ||
| Additional optimization criteria | 286 | ||
| A ROADMAP TO OPTIMIZATION | 287 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 288 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 289 | ||
| REFERENCES | 289 | ||
| Corrosion and corrosion modeling | 291 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 291 | ||
| METHODS | 293 | ||
| Test rig for oxygen consumption and iron release | 294 | ||
| Test rig for multiple weight loss coupons | 294 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS | 296 | ||
| Data from corrosion test rigs | 296 | ||
| Evaluation of data from multiple weight loss coupons | 297 | ||
| Corrosion modeling example | 299 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 301 | ||
| REFERENCES | 301 | ||
| Model for the calculation of optimised flushing concepts | 305 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 305 | ||
| DATA BASE | 306 | ||
| MODEL APPROACH | 307 | ||
| Calculation program | 309 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 311 | ||
| REFERENCES | 311 | ||
| Influence of NOM chlorination on halophenols: appearance and control on a water treatment plant | 313 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 313 | ||
| Halophenols | 314 | ||
| Organic matter (OM) | 315 | ||
| EXPERIMENTAL | 316 | ||
| Standards and material | 316 | ||
| Chlorination experiments | 317 | ||
| Extraction of halophenols | 317 | ||
| GC-MS determination | 317 | ||
| Treatment experiments | 318 | ||
| Coagulation/flocculation/decantation | 318 | ||
| Adsorption onto activated carbon | 318 | ||
| Ozonation | 318 | ||
| Nanofiltration | 319 | ||
| Chlorine dioxide | 319 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 319 | ||
| Halophenol generation | 319 | ||
| Influence of the quality water | 320 | ||
| pH and temperature influence | 320 | ||
| Presence of bromide ions | 322 | ||
| Control of halophenols formation | 326 | ||
| Sodium hypochlorite | 326 | ||
| Chlorine dioxide | 327 | ||
| Halophenol precursor removal | 330 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 331 | ||
| REFERENCES | 332 | ||
| Embedding water quality changes in hydraulic modelling – the Techneau WP5.5 water quality modelling platform | 335 | ||
| REFERENCES | 337 | ||
| Small Scale Systems | 339 | ||
| Small-Scale Systems (SSS) for decentralised water supply and relevance of membrane technologies | 341 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 341 | ||
| GLOBAL PICTURE OF DECENTRALISED WATER SUPPLY | 342 | ||
| Reaching the Millennium Development Goals with small-scale systems | 342 | ||
| Overview in Europe | 343 | ||
| WHO Networks and TECHNEAU 3S Task Force | 343 | ||
| MEMBRANE PROCESSES AS VIABLE SOLUTIONS TO DECENTRALISED WATER SUPPLY | 345 | ||
| Membrane responds to the decentralised needs | 345 | ||
| Membrane integrity | 346 | ||
| Considered applications fields | 347 | ||
| Respond to local needs | 347 | ||
| Market survey | 347 | ||
| Geographical market distribution | 348 | ||
| Current commercial applications | 348 | ||
| Market development | 348 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 350 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 350 | ||
| REFERENCES | 350 | ||
| Low-pressure UF and membrane fouling by polysaccharides | 351 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 351 | ||
| METHODS | 352 | ||
| UF membranes | 353 | ||
| Membrane test units | 353 | ||
| Fouling experiments | 354 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 354 | ||
| Impact of different polysaccharides on the membrane fouling | 354 | ||
| The role of metal ions | 356 | ||
| Iron containing systems | 357 | ||
| The influence of ionic strength | 359 | ||
| Long-term experiments and flux stabilization | 360 | ||
| Relevance for practice | 361 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 362 | ||
| REFERENCES | 363 | ||
| First results of a 5 m⊃3/d gravity-driven ultrafiltration unit for decentralised water supply | 365 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 365 | ||
| MATERIALS AND METHODS | 366 | ||
| Description of the unit | 366 | ||
| Site for trials | 367 | ||
| Action plan | 368 | ||
| Commissioning and identification of hydraulic issues | 369 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 370 | ||
| Flux stabilization | 370 | ||
| Influence of the intermittent operation and of the turbidity feed | 370 | ||
| Influence of the drainage frequency | 371 | ||
| Influence of the temperature | 372 | ||
| Expectations for the South African conditions | 373 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 373 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 374 | ||
| REFERENCES | 374 | ||
| Simulation | 375 | ||
| Modelling with the European drinking water treatment simulator | 377 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 377 | ||
| Materials and methods | 379 | ||
| Mathematical models | 379 | ||
| Measurements | 381 | ||
| Drinking water treatment plant Weesperkarspel | 381 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 381 | ||
| Basic control | 381 | ||
| Model-based monitoring | 383 | ||
| Model-based optimisation | 383 | ||
| Model-based control | 384 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 384 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 385 | ||
| REFERENCES | 385 | ||
| Adsorption and biodegradation of natural organic matter in biological granular activated carbon filters: model validation | 387 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 387 | ||
| MATERIALS AND METHODS | 388 | ||
| Model description | 388 | ||
| Model parameters | 391 | ||
| Pilot plant | 392 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 395 | ||
| NOM adsorption and biodegradation | 395 | ||
| Biomass development | 396 | ||
| Evaluation | 396 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 397 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 397 | ||
| REFERENCES | 397 | ||
| Modelling of NOM removal by coagulation | 401 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 401 | ||
| NOM COAGULATION MECHANISMS | 403 | ||
| DOC REMOVAL MODELS | 405 | ||
| The Langmuir isotherm-based adsorption model | 406 | ||
| Modifications to the adsorption model | 408 | ||
| ENHANCED COAGULATION OPERATION MODELS | 409 | ||
| Coagulant dose demand | 410 | ||
| Enhanced coagulation software models | 411 | ||
| SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS | 413 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 413 | ||
| REFERENCES | 413 | ||
| Adaptive strategies for drinking water production in The Netherlands | 415 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 415 | ||
| WATER STRESS AND DRINKING WATER PRODUCTION | 416 | ||
| NEED FOR ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES | 418 | ||
| Alternative sources concept | 419 | ||
| Multiple sources concept | 421 | ||
| Flexible sources concept | 422 | ||
| POTENTIAL FOR MITIGATION MEASURES | 423 | ||
| Mitigation measures | 424 | ||
| DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS | 425 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 426 | ||
| REFERENCES | 426 | ||
| Enhancing consumer relations: the role of trust and confidence | 429 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 429 | ||
| THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN TRUST AND CONFIDENCE | 430 | ||
| TRUST AND CONFIDENCE IN A WATER CRISIS MANAGEMENT CONTEXT – THE CASE OF LILLA EDET | 432 | ||
| COMMENTARY | 435 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 437 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 437 | ||
| REFERENCES | 437 | ||
| Nanotechnology applications and prospects in the water sector | 439 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 439 | ||
| NANOTECHNOLOGY DEVICES FOR BIOMOLECULAR DETECTION | 439 | ||
| Quantum dots | 440 | ||
| FloDots | 440 | ||
| Gold nanoparticles | 441 | ||
| Magnetic nanoparticles | 441 | ||
| THE APPLICATION OF NANOFIBERS AND NANOBIOCIDES IN WATER PURIFICATION | 441 | ||
| Fabrication of functional nanofibers | 442 | ||
| Nanobiocides | 443 | ||
| POTENTIAL RISKS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY | 444 | ||
| In vitro toxicity studies | 444 | ||
| In vivo toxicity studies | 445 | ||
| Diseases and clinical disorders | 446 | ||
| Mechanisms of nanotoxicity | 446 | ||
| FUTURE PERSPECTIVES | 447 | ||
| REFERENCES | 447 | ||
| Alternative Sources | 453 | ||
| Recycled water and desalinated seawater replenish and replace drinking water in Australia | 455 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 455 | ||
| INDIRECT POTABLE WATER RECYCLING | 456 | ||
| South East Queensland | 456 | ||
| Perth (Western Australia) | 458 | ||
| Sydney – Replacement Flows (New South Wales) | 459 | ||
| SEAWATER DESALINATION | 460 | ||
| Perth (Western Australia) | 461 | ||
| Sydney (New South Wales) | 463 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 464 | ||
| REFERENCES | 465 | ||
| Drinking water safety in Windhoek, Namibia: routine monitoring, trace organics, pathogenic indicators and salinity – comparing | 467 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 467 | ||
| MONITORING | 469 | ||
| WATER SOURCES | 469 | ||
| Groundwater | 469 | ||
| Surface water | 470 | ||
| Reclaimed water | 472 | ||
| DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM | 473 | ||
| COMPARISON OF RESULTS | 473 | ||
| Risk assessment and surveillance (RAS) | 473 | ||
| 1. Plant control | 474 | ||
| 2. Private management agreement | 474 | ||
| 3. On-line surveillance or monitoring | 475 | ||
| 4. Analytical surveillance | 475 | ||
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 475 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 478 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 478 | ||
| REFERENCES | 478 |