BOOK
Marine Wastewater Outfalls and Treatment Systems
Philip J. W. Roberts | Henry J. Salas | Fred M. Reiff | Menahem Libhaber | Alejandro Labbe | James C. Thomson
(2010)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Wastewater disposal by marine outfalls is proven and effective and is a reliable and cost effective solution with minimal environmental impacts. The design and siting of submarine outfalls is a complex task that relies on many disciplines including oceanography, civil and environmental engineering, marine biology, construction, economics, and public relations. Marine Wastewater Outfalls and Treatment Systems brings these disciplines together and outlines all tasks involved in the planning and design of a wastewater system involving a marine outfall.
This book concerns the design of marine wastewater disposal systems: that is an ocean outfall plus treatment plant. All aspects of outfall design and planning are covered, including water quality design criteria, mathematical modelling of water quality and dilution, gathering required oceanographic data, appropriate wastewater treatment for marine discharges, construction materials for marine pipelines, forces on pipelines and outfall design, outfall hydraulics, outfall construction, tunnelled outfalls, operation and maintenance, monitoring, case studies are discussed and methods for gaining public acceptance for the project are presented. Finally, costs for many outfalls around the world are summarized and methods for estimating costs are given.
This is the first book to consider all aspects of marine outfall planning and construction. The authors are all extensively involved with outfall schemes and aware of recent developments. The science and technology of all aspects of outfall discharges into coastal waters and estuaries of treated municipal or industrial wastewater has advanced considerably over the past few years. Marine Wastewater Outfalls and Treatment Systems provides an up to date and comprehensive summary of this rapidly developing area.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Haf Title | 1 | ||
| Title | 3 | ||
| Copyright | 4 | ||
| Contents | 5 | ||
| Preface | 15 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 19 | ||
| About the Authors | 21 | ||
| Chapter 1: Introduction | 27 | ||
| 1.1 OBJECTIVES AND PHILOSOPHY OF MARINE WASTEWATER DISPOSAL | 27 | ||
| 1.2 WATER QUALITY ASPECTS | 30 | ||
| 1.3 APPROPRIATE TREATMENT FOR OCEAN OUTFALL DISCHARGES | 31 | ||
| 1.4 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN | 34 | ||
| 1.5 BOOK OUTLINE | 37 | ||
| Chapter 2: Water quality aspects | 41 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 41 | ||
| 2.2 GENERAL WATER QUALITY ISSUES | 42 | ||
| 2.3 CONCEPT OF A MIXING ZONE | 44 | ||
| 2.4 THE CALIFORNIA OCEAN PLAN | 46 | ||
| 2.4.1 General provisions | 47 | ||
| 2.4.2 Bacterial characteristics | 47 | ||
| 2.4.3 Physical characteristics | 48 | ||
| 2.4.4 Chemical characteristics | 48 | ||
| 2.4.5 Biological characteristics | 50 | ||
| 2.4.6 Radioactivity | 50 | ||
| 2.4.7 Discussion of the plan | 50 | ||
| 2.5 STANDARDS FOR TOXICS | 51 | ||
| 2.6 BACTERIAL CONTAMINANTS | 52 | ||
| 2.6.1 Introduction | 52 | ||
| 2.6.2 Historical review | 53 | ||
| 2.6.2.1 The United States of America (USA) | 53 | ||
| 2.6.2.2 International organizations | 59 | ||
| 2.6.3 Standards for human health protection | 61 | ||
| 2.6.3.1 WHO guidelines | 61 | ||
| 2.6.3.2 Other standards | 68 | ||
| 2.6.4 Standards for shellfish | 71 | ||
| 2.6.5 Standards for indigenous organisms | 73 | ||
| 2.7 RECOMMENDATIONS | 73 | ||
| Chapter 3: Wastewater mixing and dispersion | 77 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 77 | ||
| 3.2 FEATURES OF COASTAL WATERS | 80 | ||
| 3.2.1 Introduction | 80 | ||
| 3.2.2 Water motions | 81 | ||
| 3.2.3 Density stratification | 82 | ||
| 3.2.4 Winds | 83 | ||
| 3.3 MECHANISMS AND PREDICTION OF WASTEFIELD FATE AND TRANSPORT | 85 | ||
| 3.3.1 Introduction | 85 | ||
| 3.3.2 Near field mixing | 85 | ||
| 3.3.2.1 Introduction | 85 | ||
| 3.3.2.2 Horizontal buoyant jet in stationary, homogeneous environment | 86 | ||
| 3.3.2.3 Multiple buoyant jets in stationary, homogeneous environment | 92 | ||
| 3.3.2.4 Effect of flowing currents: single plume | 94 | ||
| 3.3.2.5 Merging plumes in a flowing current | 96 | ||
| 3.3.2.6 Single plume into stationary, stratified flow | 99 | ||
| 3.3.2.7 Merging plumes into stationary, stratified environment | 101 | ||
| 3.3.2.8 Merging plumes into a flowing, stratified current | 102 | ||
| 3.3.2.9 Discussion and summary | 106 | ||
| 3.3.3 Far field mixing | 107 | ||
| 3.3.3.1 Introduction | 107 | ||
| 3.3.3.2 Oceanic turbulent mixing | 108 | ||
| 3.3.3.3 Statistical far field model | 110 | ||
| 3.3.4 Long-term flushing | 117 | ||
| 3.4 CONCLUSIONS | 119 | ||
| Chapter 4: Modeling transport processes and water quality | 121 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 121 | ||
| 4.2 NEAR FIELD AND MIXING ZONE MODELS | 122 | ||
| 4.2.1 Length-scale models | 122 | ||
| 4.2.2 Entrainment models | 122 | ||
| 4.2.3 CFD models | 127 | ||
| 4.3 SOME NEAR FIELD AND MIXING ZONE MODELS | 129 | ||
| 4.3.1 Introduction | 129 | ||
| 4.3.2 Visual Plumes | 129 | ||
| 4.3.3 NRFIELD | 133 | ||
| 4.3.4 Cormix | 134 | ||
| 4.3.5 VISJET | 135 | ||
| 4.4 FAR FIELD MODELS | 135 | ||
| 4.4.1 Hydrodynamic models | 135 | ||
| 4.4.2 Nesting technique | 139 | ||
| 4.5 WATER QUALITY MODELS | 141 | ||
| 4.5.1 Introduction | 141 | ||
| 4.5.2 Eulerian models | 141 | ||
| 4.5.3 Lagrangian models | 142 | ||
| 4.6 MODEL COUPLING | 145 | ||
| 4.7 NUMERICAL MODELING CASE STUDIES | 149 | ||
| 4.7.1 Introduction | 149 | ||
| 4.7.2 Mamala Bay | 149 | ||
| 4.7.3 Rio de Janiero | 153 | ||
| 4.7.4 Cartagena | 154 | ||
| 4.7.5 Boston | 158 | ||
| 4.8 PHYSICAL MODELS | 159 | ||
| 4.9 DISCUSSION | 160 | ||
| Chapter 5: Field surveys and data requirements | 163 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 163 | ||
| 5.2 PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY | 164 | ||
| 5.2.1 Introduction | 164 | ||
| 5.2.2 Currents | 164 | ||
| 5.2.3 Density stratification | 171 | ||
| 5.2.4 Waves and tides | 175 | ||
| 5.2.5 Meteorology | 175 | ||
| 5.3 BATHYMETRY AND GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES | 177 | ||
| 5.3.1 Bathymetry | 177 | ||
| 5.3.2 Geophysical | 179 | ||
| 5.4 WATER QUALITY | 181 | ||
| 5.5 BACTERIAL DECAY (T⊂90) | 182 | ||
| 5.5.1 On-site measurement in artificial plume | 182 | ||
| 5.5.2 In-situ measurement in existing wastewater discharge | 183 | ||
| 5.5.3 Bottle method | 183 | ||
| Chapter 6: Wastewater management and treatment | 185 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 185 | ||
| 6.2 GLOBAL WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER DISPOSAL | 188 | ||
| 6.3 PROPOSED GUIDELINES FOR GOOD WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES | 190 | ||
| 6.3.1 Overview | 190 | ||
| 6.3.2 The utility perspective | 191 | ||
| 6.3.3 The government perspective | 192 | ||
| 6.4 EFFLUENT STANDARDS | 193 | ||
| 6.4.1 Standards in industrialized countries | 193 | ||
| 6.4.2 Standards in developing countries | 194 | ||
| 6.5 KEY POLLUTANTS IN WASTEWATER | 195 | ||
| 6.6 PRINCIPALS AND PROCESSES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL | 197 | ||
| 6.6.1 Introduction | 197 | ||
| 6.6.2 Treatment processes | 198 | ||
| 6.6.3 Sludge treatment and disposal | 203 | ||
| 6.6.4 Summary and costs | 205 | ||
| 6.7 APPROPRIATE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY | 206 | ||
| 6.7.1 Introduction | 206 | ||
| 6.7.2 Preliminary treatment | 209 | ||
| 6.7.3 Physico-chemical treatment | 216 | ||
| 6.7.3.1 The case for physico-chemical treatment | 216 | ||
| 6.7.3.2 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT) | 218 | ||
| 6.7.3.3 CEPT followed by filtration and disinfection | 219 | ||
| 6.7.3.4 Chemically enhanced solids separation by rotating fine screens (CERFS) | 221 | ||
| 6.7.3.5 CERFS followed by filtration and disinfection | 222 | ||
| 6.7.4 Management and disposal of solid wastes | 223 | ||
| 6.7.4.1 Solid wastes from preliminary treatment processes | 223 | ||
| 6.7.4.2 Sludge management | 225 | ||
| 6.7.5 Treatment costs | 226 | ||
| 6.8 WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND GLOBAL WARMING | 228 | ||
| 6.9 CONCLUSIONS | 229 | ||
| Chapter 7: Materials for small and medium diameter outfalls | 231 | ||
| 7.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS | 231 | ||
| 7.2 SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS | 234 | ||
| 7.2.1 Pipe connections | 234 | ||
| 7.2.2 Internal pressure | 235 | ||
| 7.2.3 Resistance to externally imposed forces | 235 | ||
| 7.2.4 Flexibility | 236 | ||
| 7.3 TYPES OF PIPE USED IN SUBMARINE OUTFALLS | 236 | ||
| 7.3.1 Concrete pipe | 236 | ||
| 7.3.2 Steel pipe | 239 | ||
| 7.3.3 Ductile iron pipe | 240 | ||
| 7.3.4 GRP pipe | 242 | ||
| 7.3.5 PVC Pipe | 243 | ||
| 7.3.6 Polyethylene (HDPE) pipe | 244 | ||
| 7.4 CORROSION PROTECTION | 245 | ||
| Chapter 8: Oceanic forces on Submarine Outfalls | 249 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 249 | ||
| 8.2 CURRENTS | 250 | ||
| 8.3 WAVES | 252 | ||
| 8.3.1 Design wave | 252 | ||
| 8.3.2 Prediction of wind-driven waves | 254 | ||
| 8.3.3 Goda’s simplified procedure for wind wave prediction | 255 | ||
| 8.3.4 Transformation of deep water waves approaching shore | 257 | ||
| 8.3.5 Velocity and acceleration under a passing wave | 259 | ||
| 8.4 FORCES DUE TO A STEADY CURRENT | 262 | ||
| 8.5 WAVE-INDUCED FORCES | 266 | ||
| 8.5.1 Horizontal forces | 267 | ||
| 8.5.2 Vertical forces | 270 | ||
| 8.6 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FORCES | 271 | ||
| Chapter 9: Design of polyethylene outfalls | 273 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 273 | ||
| 9.2 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR POLYETHYLENE MATERIALS AND PIPE | 274 | ||
| 9.3 SELECTING THE PIPE DIAMETER | 279 | ||
| 9.4 STABILIZING AND PROTECTING THE OUTFALL | 282 | ||
| 9.4.1 Stabilization with concrete ballast weights | 283 | ||
| 9.4.2 Stabilization with mechanical anchors | 288 | ||
| 9.4.3 Protection by entrenchment | 289 | ||
| 9.4.4 Articulated concrete block mats (ACBM) | 292 | ||
| 9.5 STRESSES ON AN HDPE OUTFALL | 294 | ||
| 9.5.1 Pipe stress due to currents and waves | 295 | ||
| 9.5.2 Stress during flotation | 296 | ||
| 9.5.3 Bending stresses | 297 | ||
| 9.5.3.1 Minimum bending radius | 298 | ||
| 9.5.3.2 Stress due to bending | 299 | ||
| 9.6 HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS | 300 | ||
| 9.6.1 Criteria | 300 | ||
| 9.6.1.1 Self-cleaning velocities | 301 | ||
| 9.6.1.2 Elimination of entrained or trapped air | 302 | ||
| 9.7 DESIGNING THE DIFFUSER | 305 | ||
| 9.7.1 Introduction | 305 | ||
| 9.7.2 Diffuser configuration | 305 | ||
| 9.7.3 Diffuser design objectives | 307 | ||
| 9.7.4 Port configurations | 310 | ||
| 9.7.5 Hydraulic calculations | 312 | ||
| 9.7.6 Check valves | 316 | ||
| 9.8 EXTREMELY DEEP OUTFALLS | 319 | ||
| 9.9 VERY SHALLOW OUTFALLS | 322 | ||
| Chapter 10: Ocean outfall construction | 325 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 325 | ||
| 10.2 IMPORTANT PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION | 327 | ||
| 10.2.1 Permits and compliance with regulations | 327 | ||
| 10.2.2 Seabed conditions | 327 | ||
| 10.2.3 Sea conditions, wind, waves, tides, and currents | 328 | ||
| 10.2.4 Surf zone conditions | 329 | ||
| 10.2.5 Construction offices | 329 | ||
| 10.2.6 Supply of pipe and fittings | 330 | ||
| 10.2.7 Storage of materials and equipment | 332 | ||
| 10.2.8 Public relations | 333 | ||
| 10.3 OUTFALL INSTALLATION METHODS | 333 | ||
| 10.3.1 Flotation and submersion | 334 | ||
| 10.3.1.1 Temporary working platform and launch facility | 335 | ||
| 10.3.1.2 Butt fusion welding HDPE pipe | 338 | ||
| 10.3.1.3 Concrete ballasts | 341 | ||
| 10.3.1.4 Testing the outfall | 345 | ||
| 10.3.1.5 Launching the outfall | 345 | ||
| 10.3.1.6 Towing and positioning the outfall | 347 | ||
| 10.3.1.7 Submerging the outfall | 348 | ||
| 10.3.1.8 Post submergence activities | 353 | ||
| 10.3.2 Bottom pull method | 353 | ||
| 10.3.3 Mobile jack-up platforms | 356 | ||
| 10.3.4 Outfall installation from a lay barge | 358 | ||
| 10.3.5 Installation from a floating crane barge | 359 | ||
| 10.4 TEMPORARY TRESTLES | 360 | ||
| 10.5 SUBSEA EXCAVATION | 362 | ||
| 10.5.1 Excavation in an unconsolidated seabed | 362 | ||
| 10.5.2 Subsea excavation in rock | 368 | ||
| 10.6 INSTALLATION OF MECHANICAL ANCHORS | 370 | ||
| 10.7 DIFFUSER INSTALLATION | 370 | ||
| Chapter 11: Outfall installation by trenchless techniques | 373 | ||
| 11.1 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE UNDERGROUND INSTALLATION OF PIPELINES | 373 | ||
| 11.2 ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLATION BY TRENCHLESS METHODS | 374 | ||
| 11.3 THE SITE AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION | 376 | ||
| 11.4 MARINE OUTFALLS INSTALLED BY TUNNELING | 377 | ||
| 11.4.1 Background | 377 | ||
| 11.4.2 The tunneling process | 377 | ||
| The shield and TBM | 377 | ||
| Removal of cuttings from the tunnel | 380 | ||
| Tunnel lining | 380 | ||
| The drive shaft | 382 | ||
| The reception shaft | 382 | ||
| 11.4.3 Case studies | 382 | ||
| Aberdeen, UK | 382 | ||
| Boston outfall | 384 | ||
| South Bay Ocean outfall | 385 | ||
| Mumbai outfalls | 386 | ||
| Other examples | 387 | ||
| 11.5 MARINE OUTFALLS INSTALLED BY MICROTUNNELING | 390 | ||
| 11.5.1 Background | 390 | ||
| 11.5.2 The microtunneling process | 392 | ||
| The shield and TBM | 393 | ||
| Removal of cuttings | 393 | ||
| Tunnel lining | 393 | ||
| The shaft | 394 | ||
| 11.5.3 Case studies | 395 | ||
| The Europipe | 395 | ||
| Horden outfall | 396 | ||
| Marbella outfall Biarritz | 398 | ||
| Other examples | 399 | ||
| 11.6 MARINE OUTFALLS INSTALLED BY HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONAL DRILLING | 402 | ||
| 11.6.1 Background | 402 | ||
| 11.6.2 Horizontal directional drilling | 402 | ||
| 1. The pilot bore | 402 | ||
| 2. Pre-reaming | 404 | ||
| 3. Pull-back | 404 | ||
| Drilling mud and slurry | 405 | ||
| 11.6.3 Marine outfall and intake installations | 405 | ||
| 11.6.4 Case studies | 406 | ||
| Castro Urdiales Spain | 406 | ||
| Mear/Veg Rock, Isle of Man, UK | 407 | ||
| Rockaway Beach USA | 409 | ||
| Other examples | 410 | ||
| 11.7 NEW DEVELOPMENTS | 410 | ||
| 11.8 SUMMARY OF APPLICATIONS | 414 | ||
| 11.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY | 415 | ||
| Chapter 12: Operation and maintenance | 417 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 417 | ||
| 12.2 MAINTAINING A CLEAN PIPE BORE | 418 | ||
| 12.3 CORROSION PROTECTION SYSTEMS | 420 | ||
| 12.4 DIFFUSER MAINTENANCE | 422 | ||
| 12.5 ROUTINE VISUAL INSPECTION | 423 | ||
| 12.6 RECORDING DISCHARGE FLOW | 424 | ||
| 12.7 RECORDING TOTAL HEAD | 425 | ||
| 12.8 MISCELLANEOUS MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR | 425 | ||
| 12.9 COSTS | 426 | ||
| 12.10 SUMMARY | 426 | ||
| Chapter 13: Monitoring | 429 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 429 | ||
| 13.2 MONITORING PARAMETERS | 430 | ||
| 13.3 OUTFALL-RELATED MONITORING | 431 | ||
| 13.3.1 Introduction | 431 | ||
| 13.3.2 Pre-discharge monitoring | 431 | ||
| 13.3.3 Post-discharge monitoring | 432 | ||
| 13.3.3.1 Physical and chemical sampling | 432 | ||
| 13.3.3.2 Biological sampling | 433 | ||
| 13.3.3.3 Wastewater characteristics | 434 | ||
| 13.3.4 Sample monitoring program | 434 | ||
| 13.4 ROUTINE BEACH MONITORING | 436 | ||
| 13.5 SUMMARY | 437 | ||
| Chapter 14: Case studies | 439 | ||
| 14.1 INTRODUCTION | 439 | ||
| 14.2 CARTAGENA, COLOMBIA | 440 | ||
| 14.2.1 Background | 440 | ||
| 14.2.2 Institutional aspects of the Cartagena water and sanitation sector | 442 | ||
| 14.2.3 The World Bank’s support to Cartagena | 444 | ||
| 14.2.4 The proposed wastewater disposal scheme | 447 | ||
| 14.2.5 Social aspects of the outfall | 453 | ||
| 14.3 CONCEPCION, CHILE | 454 | ||
| 14.4 SANTA MARTA, COLOMBIA | 460 | ||
| Chapter 15: Gaining public acceptance | 465 | ||
| 15.1 INTRODUCTION | 465 | ||
| 15.2 CARTAGENA CASE STUDY | 468 | ||
| Appendix A: Outfall costs | 473 | ||
| 1. INTRODUCTION | 473 | ||
| 2. OUTFALL COSTS | 474 | ||
| 3. COST ISSUES | 482 | ||
| 3.1. Overview | 482 | ||
| 3.2 Direct costs | 484 | ||
| 3.3 Indirect costs | 484 | ||
| 3.4 Example calculation for typical HDPE outfall | 485 | ||
| 4. SUMMARY | 486 | ||
| Appendix B: Abbreviations | 487 | ||
| References | 491 | ||
| Index | 505 |