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Treatment of Micropollutants in Water and Wastewater

Treatment of Micropollutants in Water and Wastewater

Jurate Virkutyte | Rajender S. Varma | Veeriah Jegatheesan

(2010)

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Book Details

Abstract

Over the last few years there has been a growing concern over the increasing concentration of micropollutants originating from a great variety of sources including pharmaceutical, chemical engineering and personal care product industries in rivers, lakes, soil and groundwater. As most of the micropollutants are polar and persistent compounds, they are only partially or not at all removed from wastewater and thus can enter the environment posing a great risk to the biota. It is hypothesized that wastewater is one of the most important point sources for micropollutants. 
Treatment of Micropollutants in Water and Wastewater gives a comprehensive overview of modern analytical methods and will summarize novel single and hybrid methods to remove continuously emerging contaminants - micropollutants from the aqueous phase. New trends (e.g. sensor technology, nanotechnology and hybrid treatment technologies) are described in detail. The book is very timely because the new techniques are still in the development phase and have to be realized not only in the laboratory but also on a larger scale. The content of the book is divided into chapters that present current descriptive and analytical methods that are available to detect and measure micropollutants together with detailed information on various chemical, biological and physicochemical methods that have evolved over the last few decades.  
Treatment of Micropollutants in Water and Wastewater will also enable readers to make well informed choices through providing an understanding of why and how micropollutants must be removed from water sources, and what are the most appropriate and available techniques for providing a cost and technologically effective and sustainable solutions for reaching the goal of micropollutant-free water and wastewater. The book will be suitable for water and wastewater professionals as well for students and researchers in civil engineering, environmental engineering and process engineering fields.   

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Half Title 1
Title 2
Series 3
Copyright 4
Contents 5
Preface 15
Chapter 1: Micropollutants and Aquatic Environment 17
1.1 INTRODUCTION 17
1.2 PESTICIDES 18
1.2.1 Organochlorine insecticides 19
1.2.1.1 Fate 20
1.2.1.2 Effects 21
1.2.2 Organophosporous insecticides 22
1.2.2.1 Fate 23
1.2.2.2 Effects 24
1.2.3 Triazine herbicides 24
1.2.3.1 Fate 25
1.2.3.2 Effects 26
1.2.4 Substituted ureas 26
1.2.4.1 Fate 27
1.2.4.2 Effects 27
1.2.5 Legislation 28
1.3 PHARMACEUTICALS 29
1.3.1 Fate 31
1.3.2 Effects 35
1.3.3 Legislation 36
1.4 STEROID HORMONES 37
1.4.1 Fate 38
1.4.2 Effects 40
1.4.3 Legislation 41
1.5 SURFACTANTS AND PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS 41
1.5.1 Fate 43
1.5.2 Effects 45
1.5.3 Legislation 46
1.6 PERFLUORINATED COMPOUNDS 46
1.6.1 Fate 47
1.6.2 Effects 48
1.6.3 Legislation 49
1.7 REFERENCES 51
Chapter 2: Analytical methods for the identification of Micropollutants and their transformation products 69
2.1 INTRODUCTION 69
2.2 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE ANALYTICS OF MICROPOLLUTANTS 76
2.2.1 Computational methods to evaluate the degradation of micropollutants 76
2.2.1.1 Frontier electron density analysis (Frontier orbital theory) 77
2.2.2 Chemometrics in analysis 79
2.2.2.1 Parafac 80
2.2.2.2 MCR 80
2.2.2.3 BLLS 81
2.2.2.4 U-PLS 81
2.2.2.5 ANN 82
2.3 INSTRUMENTAL METHODS 82
2.3.1 Sample preparation 83
2.3.1.1 Sample extraction 83
2.3.1.2 Chromatographic separation 85
2.3.1.3 Capillary electrophoresis (CE) 85
2.3.2 Detection of micropollutants transformation products 87
2.3.2.1 Mass spectrometry 88
2.3.3 UV-Visible spectroscopy 92
2.3.4 NMR spectroscopy 92
2.3.5 Biological assessment of the degradation products 94
2.3.5.1 Ecotoxicological assessment of environmental risk (toxicity) 95
2.3.5.2 Assessment of estrogenic activity 96
2.3.5.3 Assessment of antimicrobial activity 97
2.3.5.4 Biosensors 97
2.4 IDENTIFICATION LEVELS OF MICROPOLLUTANTS TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS 98
2.5 CONCLUSIONS 101
2.6 REFERENCES 101
Chapter 3: Sensors and biosensors for endocrine disrupting chemicals: State-of-the-art and future trends 109
3.1 INTRODUCTION 109
3.2 SENSORS AND BIOSENSORS 110
3.2.1 The need for alternative methods 110
3.2.2 Electrochemical sensors 111
3.2.3 Biosensors 112
3.2.4 New generation immunosensors 116
3.3 TRENDS IN SENSORS AND BIOSENSORS 122
3.3.1 Screen printed sensors and biosensors 122
3.3.2 Nanotechnology applications 122
3.3.3 Molecular imprinted polymer sensors 124
3.3.4 Conducting polymers 128
3.4 FUTURE OF SENSING 130
3.5 REFERENCES 131
Chapter 4: Nanofiltration membranes and nanofilters 145
4.1 INTRODUCTION OF NANOFILTRATION 145
4.2 NANOFILTRATION MEMBRANE MATERIALS 148
4.3 SEPARATION AND FOULING OF NANOFILTRATION 152
4.4 NANOFILTRATION OF MICROPOLLUTANTS IN WATER 158
4.5 REFERENCES 168
Chapter 5: Physico-chemical treatment of Micropollutants: Adsorption and ion exchange 181
5.1 INTRODUCTION 181
5.2 THE MAIN STAGES OF ADSORPTION & ION EXCHANGE SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT 183
5.3 CARBONS IN WATER TREATMENT AND MEDICINE 185
5.4 ZEOLITES (CLAYS) 188
5.5 ION EXCHANGE RESINS OR ION EXCHANGE POLYMERS 189
5.6 INORGANIC ION-EXCHANGERS 192
5.6.1 Ferrocyanides adsorbents 193
5.6.2 Synthesis of inorganic ion exchangers 200
5.7 BIOSORBENTS (BIOMASSES): AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS, MICROORGANISMS 203
5.8 HYBRID AND COMPOSITE ADSORBENTS AND ION EXCHANGERS 207
5.9 COMMENTS ON THE THEORY AND FUTURE OF ADSORPTION AND ION-EXCHANGE SCIENCE 208
5.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 210
5.11 REFERENCES 210
Chapter 6: Physico-chemical treatment of Micropollutants: coagulation and membrane processes 221
6.1 COAGULATION 221
6.1.1 Enhanced coagulation 222
a) Effects of physical-chemical properties of micropollutants 224
b) Choice of coagulants and dosage 226
c) pH and alkalinity 227
6.1.2 Coagulation-oxidation 229
6.2 MEMBRANE PROCESSES 231
6.2.1 Mechanisms of solute rejection during membrane treatment 232
6.2.2 Micropollutant removal by microfiltration 233
6.2.3 Micropollutant removal by ultrafiltration 234
a) Ultrafiltration alone 234
b) Combination of ultrafiltration and powdered activated carbon 235
c) Combination of ultrafiltration and biological module (membrane bioreactor) 236
6.2.4 Micropollutant removal by reverse osmosis 241
6.2.5 Electrodialysis 243
6.3 REFERENCES 249
Chapter 7: Biological treatment of Micropollutants 255
7.1 INTRODUCTION 255
7.2 MUNICIPAL SEWAGE AS THE SOURCE OF MICROPOLLUTANTS 256
7.2.1 Urine source separation and possible advantages 259
7.2.2 Biological degradation in source separated urine 263
7.3 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MICROPOLLUTANTS 265
7.3.1 Analysis of Micropollutants 266
7.3.1.1 Analytical techniques used for wastewater and sludge samples 267
7.3.1.2 Endocrine disrupting effect 268
7.3.2 Removal mechanisms of Micropollutants 270
7.3.2.1 Sorption 270
7.3.2.2 Abiotic degradation and volatilization 273
7.3.2.3 Biodegradation 274
7.3.3 Factors affecting the biological removal efficiency 275
7.3.3.1 Compound structure 275
7.3.3.2 Bioavailability 277
7.3.3.3 Dissolved oxygen and pH 277
7.3.3.4 Hydraulic and sludge retention time 279
7.3.3.5 Organic load rate 282
7.3.3.6 Temperature 282
7.3.4 Biological treatment of Micropollutants in different processes 284
7.3.4.1 Activated sludge systems 284
7.3.4.2 Wetlands 288
7.3.4.3 Membrane bioreactors 290
7.3.4.4 Anaerobic treatment 291
7.3.4.5 Other bioreactors 293
7.3.5 Biological treatment of Micropollutants in sludge 294
7.3.6 Specific microorganisms/cultures used for biodegradation of Micropollutants 294
7.3.7 Formation of by-products during biodegradation 296
7.4 REFERENCES 297
Chapter 8: UV irradiation for Micropollutant removal from aqueous solutions in the presence of H⊂2O⊂2 311
8.1 INTRODUCTION 311
8.2 THEORY OF UV/H2O2 312
8.2.1 General 312
8.2.2 Photolysis 314
8.2.3 Mechanisms UV/H⊂2O⊂2 oxidation 315
8.2.4 Ozone/UV 316
8.3 LABORATORY SCALE EXPERIMENTS OF UV/H⊂2O⊂2 316
8.3.1 General 316
8.3.2 Treatment of contaminated groundwater 316
8.3.3 Drinking water applications 319
8.3.4 Municipal waste water 321
8.3.5 Paper and pulp industry 323
8.4 OTHER UV BASED TECHNIQUES 323
8.5 ALTERNATIVE RADIATION SOURCES 325
8.6 PRACTICAL ISSUES OF UV/H⊂2O⊂2 TREATMENT 326
8.7 COST ESTIMATION & PERFORMANCE 329
8.8 REFERENCES 332
Chapter 9: Hybrid Advanced Oxidation techniques based on cavitation for Micropollutants degradation 337
9.1 INTRODUCTION 337
9.2 THEORY OF ULTRASOUND 338
9.2.1 Cavitation phenomena 338
9.2.2 The general hypothesis in sonochemical processing 338
9.2.3 Cavitation effects 339
9.2.4 Factors affecting the efficiency of sonochemical degradation 341
9.2.4.1 Ultrasonic frequency 341
9.2.4.2 Input electrical power 342
9.2.4.3 Nature of the compound and the reaction pH 342
9.2.4.4 The reaction temperature 343
9.2.4.5 The presence of additives 343
9.2.4.6 Ultrasonic equipment 345
9.3 HYBRID CAVITATION-BASED TECHNOLOGIES 346
9.3.1 US/oxidant 346
9.3.1.1 US/H⊂2O⊂2 346
9.3.1.2 US/O⊂3 347
9.3.2 US/UV 349
9.3.3 US/A 349
9.3.4 US/EO 350
9.3.5 US/MW 351
9.4 DEGRADATION OF MICROPOLLUTANTS 352
9.4.1 Degradation of pharmaceuticals by hybrid techniques based on cavitation 352
9.4.2 Degradation of organic dyes by hybrid techniques based on cavitation 356
9.4.3 Degradation of pesticides by hybrid techniques based on cavitation 359
9.5 SCALE-UP CONSIDERATIONS 364
9.6 ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF CAVITATION BASED TREATMENT 366
9.7 CONCLUSIONS 369
9.8 REFERENCES 369
Chapter 10: Advanced catalytic oxidation of emerging Micropollutants 377
10.1 INTRODUCTION 377
10.2 HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 378
10.2.1 Desirable properties of the catalyst 379
10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CATALYSIS 380
10.4 ADVANCED CATALYTIC OXIDATION PROCESSES FOR THE REMOVAL OF EMERGING CONTAMINANTS FROM THE AQUEOUS PHASE 381
10.4.1 Catalytic wet peroxide oxidation processes (CWPO) 381
10.4.1.1 Homogeneous Fenton process 381
10.4.1.2 Heterogeneous Fenton process 384
10.4.1.3 Heterogenized catalyst for the micropollutants removal 385
10.4.2 Other metal catalysts in wet peroxide oxidation of micropollutants 387
10.4.3 Catalytic ozonation of micropollutants 389
10.4.4 Photocatalytic degradation of micropollutants 391
10.4.4.1 Titanium dioxide catalyzed degradation of micropollutants 393
10.4.4.2 Photo-Fenton process for the degradation of micropollutants 395
10.4.4.3 Other photocatalysts in the degradation of micropollutants 397
10.4.5 Sonocatalytic degradation of micropollutants 399
10.4.6 Microwave-assisted catalytic degradation of miropollutants 404
10.4.7 Electrocatalytic oxidation 406
10.4.7.1 Degradation of micropollutants with electrocatalytic and coupled electrocatalytic methods 408
10.4.8 Biocatalytic oxidation of micropollutants 411
10.4.9 Catalytic wet air oxidation of micropollutants 413
10.5 ADVANCED NANOCATALYTIC OXIDATION OF MICROPOLLUTANTS 415
10.6 CONCLUSIONS 430
10.7 REFERENCES 431
Chapter 11: Existence, Impacts, Transport and Treatments of Herbicides in Great Barrier Reef Catchments in Australia 441
11.1 INTRODUCTION 441
11.2 PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS) 442
11.3 HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES 449
11.4 GREAT BARRIER REEF (GBR) 454
11.4.1 Background 454
11.4.2 Transport of Herbicides and Pesticides into the GBR 455
11.5 PERSISTENCE OF HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES IN THE GBR CATCHMENTS AND LAGOON 458
11.6 IMPACT TO THE GBR ECOSYSTEM DUE TO THE PERSISTENCE OF HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES 461
11.7 REMOVAL OF HERBICIDES BY DIFFERENT WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES 463
11.8 POSSIBLE METHODS OF TREATMENT OF POPS INCLUDING HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES FROM CATCHMENT DISCHARGES 466
11.8.1 Biological Processes 466
11.8.2 Adsorption Processes 467
11.8.3 Wetland Processes 467
11.8.4 Pressure Driven Membrane Filtration Processes 468
11.8.5 Hybrid Systems 469
11.8.6 Hybrid Systems – Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) 470
11.8.7 Other Processes 473
11.9 CONCLUSIONS 473
11.10 REFERENCES 473
tIndex 481