BOOK
Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia
Andreas N. Angelakis | Larry W. Mays | Demetris Koutsoyiannis | Nikos Mamassis
(2012)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia presents the major achievements in the scientific fields of water supply technologies and management throughout the millennia. It provides valuable insights into ancient water supply technologies with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability to the environment, and sustainability.
A comparison of the water technological developments in several civilizations is undertaken. These technologies are the underpinning of modern achievements in water engineering and management practices. It is the best proof that “the past is the key for the future.” Rapid technological progress in the twentieth century created a disregard for past water technologies that were considered to be far behind the present ones. There are a great deal of unresolved problems related to the management principles, such as the decentralization of the processes, the durability of the water projects, the cost effectiveness, and sustainability issues such as protection from floods and droughts. In the developing world, such problems were intensified to an unprecedented degree. Moreover, new problems have arisen such as the contamination of surface and groundwater. Naturally, intensification of unresolved problems led societies to revisit the past and to reinvestigate the successful past achievements. To their surprise, those who attempted this retrospect, based on archaeological, historical, and technical evidence were impressed by two things: the similarity of principles with present ones and the advanced level of water engineering and management practices.
Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia is intended for engineers in water resources companies, hydraulic design companies, and water Institutes. It can be used for all courses related to water resources.
Authors: Andreas N. Angelakis, Institute of Iraklion, National Foundation for Agricultural Research (N.AG.RE.F.), Greece, Larry W. Mays, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, USA, Demetris Koutsoyiannis, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece, Nikos Manassis, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover page | 1 | ||
| Half title page | 2 | ||
| Title page | 4 | ||
| Copyright page | 5 | ||
| Contents | 6 | ||
| List of authors | 18 | ||
| List of reviewers | 20 | ||
| Prolegomena | 22 | ||
| The evolution of water supply throughout the millennia | 22 | ||
| Chapter 1 | 24 | ||
| Ancient gods and goddesses of water | 24 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION: MYTHOLOGY, GODS AND GODDESSES | 24 | ||
| 1.2 ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIAN MYTHOLOGY | 25 | ||
| 1.3 ANCIENT EGYPT MYTHOLOGY | 26 | ||
| 1.4 THE BRONZE ERA | 27 | ||
| 1.5 GREEK MYTHOLOGY | 29 | ||
| 1.5.1 Olympian gods and goddesses | 29 | ||
| 1.5.2 Zeus or Poseidon of rain | 31 | ||
| 1.5.3 Nymphs | 31 | ||
| 1.6 ROMAN MYTHOLOGY | 32 | ||
| 1.7 CELTIC MYTHOLOGY | 34 | ||
| 1.8 HINDU/VEDIC MYTHOLOGY | 35 | ||
| 1.9 ANCIENT MESOAMERICA | 36 | ||
| 1.9.1 The Aztecs | 36 | ||
| 1.9.2 The Maya | 37 | ||
| 1.9.3 The Inca | 38 | ||
| 1.10 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS | 39 | ||
| REFERENCES | 39 | ||
| Chapter 2 | 42 | ||
| Water for human consumption through history | 42 | ||
| 2.1 PROLEGOMENA | 42 | ||
| 2.2 NEOLITHIC AGE | 44 | ||
| 2.3 BRONZE AGE | 45 | ||
| 2.4 AFTER THE BRONZE AGE (IRON AGE) | 48 | ||
| 2.5 ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREEK PERIODS | 49 | ||
| 2.6 HELLENISTIC GREEK PERIOD | 49 | ||
| 2.7 ROMAN PERIOD | 51 | ||
| 2.7.1 Roman water supply systems | 51 | ||
| 2.7.2 Water consumption | 55 | ||
| 2.8 BYZANTINE PERIOD | 56 | ||
| 2.9 OTTOMAN PERIOD (CA. 1669−1898 AD) | 59 | ||
| 2.10 MODERN TIMES | 59 | ||
| 2.10.1 17th century | 59 | ||
| 2.10.2 18th century | 60 | ||
| 2.10.3 19th century | 60 | ||
| 2.10.4 20th century | 62 | ||
| 2.11 EPILOGUE | 63 | ||
| REFERENCES | 63 | ||
| Chapter 3 | 66 | ||
| History of water and health | 66 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 66 | ||
| 3.2 THOUGHTS ON WATERBORNE DISEASE THROUGHOUT HISTORY | 66 | ||
| 3.2.1 The faecal-oral cycle | 68 | ||
| 3.2.2 A brief history of disease and water | 69 | ||
| 3.2.3 The language of infectious disease | 73 | ||
| 3.3 EVIDENCE OF WATER-RELATED DISEASE IN EGYPTIAN MUMMIES | 75 | ||
| 3.3.1 The influence of The Nile | 75 | ||
| 3.3.2 Life of the Schistosoma | 75 | ||
| 3.3.3 A history of mummification | 76 | ||
| 3.3.4 Examining the mummies | 77 | ||
| 3.4 THE PLAGUE OF ATHENS: AWATERBORNE DISEASE STORY | 78 | ||
| 3.5 WATER, DISEASE AND DEATH IN THE AMERICAN CIVILWAR: 1861-1866 | 80 | ||
| 3.6 ARSENIC EXPOSURE IN BANGLADESH: “SAFE” DRINKING WATER SOLUTIONS | 83 | ||
| 3.6.1 History and geography | 83 | ||
| 3.6.2 Technological developments | 84 | ||
| 3.6.3 International involvement in water quality issues | 85 | ||
| 3.6.4 Arsenic abundance and utilisation | 86 | ||
| 3.6.5 The scale of the arsenic problem | 87 | ||
| 3.6.6 Remediation strategies | 88 | ||
| 3.6.7 Diagnosis and treatment of arsenicosis | 89 | ||
| 3.7 CONTEMPORARY OUTBREAKS OF WATER-RELATED DISEASE | 90 | ||
| 3.7.1 Conflict and disease | 90 | ||
| 3.7.2 Natural disasters | 90 | ||
| 3.7.3 Poverty | 91 | ||
| 3.7.4 Engineering/treatment failure | 92 | ||
| 3.8 LESSONS LEARNED OR NOT | 93 | ||
| REFERENCES | 95 | ||
| Chapter 4 | 100 | ||
| Diachronic evolution of water supply in the Eastern Mediterranean | 100 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 100 | ||
| 4.2 AVAILABILITY OF WATER | 101 | ||
| 4.3 HYDRAULIC WORKS | 102 | ||
| 4.3.1 Ancient Korinthos-Hadrian’s aqueduct | 102 | ||
| 4.3.2 Qanats in Greece | 105 | ||
| 4.3.3 Tunnel of Samos | 108 | ||
| 4.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS | 110 | ||
| REFERENCES | 111 | ||
| Chapter 5 | 114 | ||
| Water and water supply technologiesin ancient Iran | 114 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 114 | ||
| 5.2 PLATEAU OF IRAN, THE CRADLE OF PRESENT CIVILIZATION | 115 | ||
| 5.3 HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF WATER AND WATER SUPPLY IN IRAN | 116 | ||
| 5.3.1 Water in ancient Iran | 116 | ||
| 5.3.2 The establishment of water administration during the Achaemenid era | 117 | ||
| 5.3.3 Water flow measurement in ancient Iran | 118 | ||
| 5.3.4 Water from the point of view of Islam | 119 | ||
| 5.3.5 Water knowledge | 120 | ||
| 5.3.6 An overview of water supply methods in ancient Iran | 120 | ||
| 5.4 WATER AND WATER SUPPLY TECHNIQUES IN ANCIENT IRAN | 123 | ||
| 5.4.1 Qanat, a purely Iranian invention | 123 | ||
| 5.4.2 The 3300-year-old water conveyance and physical treatment system in Chogha Zanbil, another symbol of ancient Iranian structure | 125 | ||
| 5.4.3 Water supply, storage and construction of integrated surface water runoffs and sewerage networks (innovation in town plann dating back 2500 years) | 127 | ||
| 5.4.3.1 The process of site selection, construction of the platform and preliminary works | 127 | ||
| 5.4.3.2 Water supply to the Persepolis complex | 129 | ||
| 5.4.3.2.1 Jamshidi qanat | 129 | ||
| 5.4.3.3 Surface water runoff collection network in Persepolis | 129 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.1 Water runoffs around the town | 129 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.2 Stone well | 130 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.3 The trench | 130 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.4 Surface runoff within Persepolis | 130 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.5 Cantilevered conduits | 131 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.6 Embedded conduits | 131 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.7 The sewerage network, a unique structure | 131 | ||
| 5.4.3.3.8 Earthenware pipeline | 135 | ||
| 5.4.4 Subterranean water reservoirs | 136 | ||
| 5.4.4.1 Tekyeh Amir–Chakhmugh subterranean water reservoir | 137 | ||
| 5.4.4.2 Shesh Bud subterranean water reservoir | 138 | ||
| 5.4.4.3 Masjid-e-Jame-Kabir subterranean water reservoir | 138 | ||
| 5.4.4.4 Golshan subterranean reservoir | 138 | ||
| 5.4.5 Ice – chambers | 139 | ||
| 5.4.5.1 Meibod ice-chamber | 140 | ||
| 5.4.5.2 Mir-Fattah ice-chamber in Malayer | 141 | ||
| 5.4.6 Dam construction | 141 | ||
| 5.4.7 Gavgard | 143 | ||
| 5.4.8 Water mills | 144 | ||
| 5.4.8.1 The 1700-year-old Shushtar mills | 146 | ||
| 5.4.8.1.1 Gar Gar Bridge, Weir and Mills | 146 | ||
| 5.5 CONCLUSIONS | 147 | ||
| ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | 149 | ||
| REFERENCES | 149 | ||
| Chapter 6 | 150 | ||
| A historical perspective on the development of water supply in Egypt | 150 | ||
| 6.1 GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND WATER RESOURCES | 150 | ||
| 6.2 THE PREHISTORY OF EGYPT | 151 | ||
| 6.3 WATER RESOURCES IN ANCIENT EGYPT | 152 | ||
| 6.3.1 General | 152 | ||
| 6.3.2 The Nile | 152 | ||
| 6.3.3 Water resources management in Ancient Egypt | 153 | ||
| 6.3.3.1 Nilometers | 153 | ||
| 6.3.3.2 Water projects | 155 | ||
| 6.4 AGRICULTURE | 156 | ||
| 6.4.1 Farming | 156 | ||
| 6.4.2 Irrigation systems | 157 | ||
| 6.5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS | 159 | ||
| 6.5.1 General | 159 | ||
| 6.5.2 Tunnels | 160 | ||
| 6.5.3 Cistern | 161 | ||
| 6.6 WATER TREATMENT | 162 | ||
| 6.7 SANITATION | 163 | ||
| 6.8 THE HISTORY OF PLUMBING | 163 | ||
| 6.9 WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN MODERN EGYPT | 164 | ||
| 6.9.1 Aswan Dams | 164 | ||
| 6.9.1.1 Construction history | 165 | ||
| 6.9.1.2 Old Aswan Dam | 165 | ||
| 6.9.1.3 Aswan High Dam | 166 | ||
| 6.9.2 Implementation of new projects | 168 | ||
| 6.10 CONCLUSIONS | 168 | ||
| REFERENCES | 168 | ||
| Chapter 7 | 170 | ||
| The impact of climate changes on the evolution of water supply works in the region of Jerusalem | 170 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 170 | ||
| 7.2 PRESENT CLIMATE | 172 | ||
| 7.3 CLIMATES OF THE PAST | 172 | ||
| 7.4 GEO-HYDROLOGY | 173 | ||
| 7.5 THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGES ON THE ANCIENT WATER WORKS | 175 | ||
| 7.5.1 Impact of climate changes during prehistory | 176 | ||
| 7.5.2. Impact of climate changes during history | 177 | ||
| 7.5.2.1 Middle to Late Bronze Age period | 177 | ||
| 7.5.2.2 The Iron Age period (ca. 1200–600 BC) | 182 | ||
| 7.5.2.3 The Persian period (ca. 500–300 BC) | 184 | ||
| 7.5.2.4 The Hellenistic–Hasmonean humid period (163–67 BC) | 184 | ||
| 7.5.2.5 The Roman–Byzantine period (67 BC–600 AD) | 186 | ||
| 7.5.2.6 The Arab period | 187 | ||
| 7.5.2.7 The Crusaders and Mameluk periods (end of the 11th to the 15th century AD) | 187 | ||
| 7.5.2.8 The Ottoman period (from the beginning of the 16th to the 20th century) | 187 | ||
| 7.5.2.9 The British mandate | 188 | ||
| 7.5.2.10 State of Israel | 188 | ||
| 7.6 CONCLUSIONS | 189 | ||
| REFERENCES | 190 | ||
| Chapter 8 | 192 | ||
| History of water supply in pre-modern China | 192 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 192 | ||
| 8.2 ANCIENT CAPITALS | 192 | ||
| 8.2.1 Siting and layout of Chinese capitals | 192 | ||
| 8.2.2 Yangcheng (Eastern Zhou Dynasty) | 194 | ||
| 8.2.3 Chang’an/ Xi’an (Han, Sui, Tang Dynasties) | 194 | ||
| 8.2.3.1 Chang’an of Han Dynasty | 195 | ||
| 8.2.3.2 Chang’an of Sui-Tang Dynasties | 196 | ||
| 8.2.3.3 Wells in Chang’an | 198 | ||
| 8.2.4 Luoyang (Han, Wei, Tang Dynasties) | 198 | ||
| 8.2.5 Nanjing (Wu, Southern Tang, Ming Dynasties) | 200 | ||
| 8.2.6 Dongjing or Bianjing/Kaifeng (Northern Song Dynasty) | 203 | ||
| 8.2.7 Hangzhou (Southern Song Dynasty) | 204 | ||
| 8.2.7.1 The West Lake and Six Wells in the Tang Dynasty | 204 | ||
| 8.2.7.2 Urban river network in the Five Dynasties and Song Dynasty | 205 | ||
| 8.2.8 Zhongdu/Dadu/Beijing (Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties) | 207 | ||
| 8.2.8.1 Zhongdu of Jin Dynasty | 207 | ||
| 8.2.8.2 Dadu of Yuan Dynasty | 208 | ||
| 8.2.8.3 Beijing of Ming-Qing Dynasties | 209 | ||
| 8.2.8.4 Wells in the city of Beijing | 210 | ||
| 8.3 CANAL TOWNS ON LOWER YANGTZE FLOOD PLAIN | 210 | ||
| 8.3.1 City of Suzhou | 211 | ||
| 8.4 CHINESE FRONTIER CITIES WITH ETHNIC MINORITIES | 213 | ||
| 8.4.1 Lijiang (branched canal system in mountainous region) | 213 | ||
| 8.4.2 Turpan (Karez system in desert region) | 215 | ||
| 8.5 MULTI-PURPOSE WATER WORKS | 218 | ||
| 8.5.1 Dujiang weir – water supply for Chengdu City | 218 | ||
| 8.5.2 Tashan Weir–Water supply for Ningbo City | 221 | ||
| 8.5.3 Mulanbei weir – water supply for Putian City | 224 | ||
| 8.6 MAIN METHODS OF WATER SUPPLY IN PREMODERN CITIES | 225 | ||
| 8.6.1 Wells and water lifting devices | 225 | ||
| 8.6.1.1 Wells | 225 | ||
| 8.6.1.2 Lifting devices | 227 | ||
| 8.6.2 Transfer and conveyance of water through canals | 228 | ||
| 8.6.3 Conveyance of water through pipes | 228 | ||
| 8.6.4 Storage of water in reservoirs | 229 | ||
| 8.6.5 Water gates | 229 | ||
| 8.6.6 Delivering water by water carts and water carriers | 232 | ||
| 8.6.7 Water quality control techniques and rules | 232 | ||
| 8.7 INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN WATERWORKS STARTING IN LATE 19TH CENTURY | 233 | ||
| 8.7.1 The opening of China | 233 | ||
| 8.7.2 Modern waterworks until 1911 | 234 | ||
| 8.7.2.1 Historical and geographical development | 234 | ||
| 8.7.2.2 Overview | 240 | ||
| 8.7.3 Modern waterworks after 1911 | 242 | ||
| 8.8 CONCLUSION | 242 | ||
| APPENDIX A.1: TABLE OF DYNASTIES AND PERIODS | 243 | ||
| APPENDIX A.2: MAP OF CHINA SHOWING LOCATION OF CITIES MENTIONED IN SECTIONS 8.2 TO 8.5 | 244 | ||
| REFERENCES | 245 | ||
| Chapter 9 | 250 | ||
| Evolution of water supply technologies through the centuries in Crete, Greece | 250 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 250 | ||
| 9.2 PHYSICAL SETTING | 251 | ||
| 9.2.1 Location | 251 | ||
| 9.2.2 Climate conditions | 252 | ||
| 9.2.3 Hydrology | 253 | ||
| 9.2.3.1 Precipitation | 253 | ||
| 9.2.3.2 Air temperature | 253 | ||
| 9.2.3.3 Wind direction | 253 | ||
| 9.2.3.4 Humidity | 253 | ||
| 9.2.3.5 Potential evapotranspiration | 254 | ||
| 9.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER SUPPLY FOR ANCIENT CRETAN CIVILIZATIONS | 254 | ||
| 9.3.1 General | 254 | ||
| 9.3.2 Minoan civilization (ca. 3200−1100 BC) | 254 | ||
| 9.3.1.1 General | 254 | ||
| 9.3.1.2 Aqueducts | 255 | ||
| 9.3.1.2.1 Open/natural gravity flow system | 256 | ||
| 9.3.1.2.2 Closed/ pressured pipe system | 257 | ||
| 9.3.1.2.3 Minoan terracotta pipes design and energy efficiency | 258 | ||
| 9.3.1.3 Water collection (harvesting) systems | 259 | ||
| 9.3.1.4 Water cisterns | 260 | ||
| 9.3.1.5 Groundwater and wells | 262 | ||
| 9.3.1.6 Water distribution systems | 263 | ||
| 9.3.1.7 Recreational uses | 264 | ||
| 9.3.1.7.1 Minoan fountains | 264 | ||
| 9.3.1.7.2 The central cistern of Zakros | 265 | ||
| 9.3.2 Historical times | 266 | ||
| 9.3.2.1 The Hellenistic period (ca. 323−67 BC) | 266 | ||
| 9.3.2.2 The Roman period (ca. 67 BC−330 AD) | 268 | ||
| 9.3.3 Medieval times | 272 | ||
| 9.3.3.1 The Byzantine period (ca. 330−1204 AD) | 272 | ||
| 9.3.3.2 The Venetian period (ca. 1204−1668 AD) | 273 | ||
| 9.3.4 Modern times | 274 | ||
| 9.3.4.1 The Ottoman period (ca. 1669−1898 AD) | 274 | ||
| 9.3.4.2 The Egyptian period (ca. 1830−1840 AD) | 275 | ||
| 9.3.4.3 Cretan state (1898−1913 AD) | 276 | ||
| 9.3.5 Present times | 276 | ||
| 9.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS | 277 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 278 | ||
| REFERENCES | 278 | ||
| Chapter 10 | 282 | ||
| A brief history of urban water managementin ancient Greece | 282 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 282 | ||
| 10.2 PREHISTORIC GREECE | 283 | ||
| 10.3 ARCHAIC GREECE: THE FORMATION OF THE CITY-STATE AND THE IMPACT OF TYRANNY | 283 | ||
| 10.3.1 Urbanisation: The model of the city–state | 283 | ||
| 10.3.2 City siting | 284 | ||
| 10.3.3 Safety of water supply | 284 | ||
| 10.3.4 Economic growth, institutional progress and the tyranny | 285 | ||
| 10.3.5 Typical water projects during tyranny | 285 | ||
| 10.3.5.1 Athens | 285 | ||
| 10.3.5.2 Samos | 287 | ||
| 10.3.5.3 Naxos | 287 | ||
| 10.4 CLASSICAL GREECE: THE CONTRIBUTION OF DEMOCRACY | 288 | ||
| 10.4.1 Athenian urban water management | 288 | ||
| 10.4.1.1 Potable and sub-potable water quality | 289 | ||
| 10.4.1.2 Water administrators | 289 | ||
| 10.4.1.3 Public and private works | 289 | ||
| 10.4.2 The contribution of Hippodamos on city planning and its effects on water infrastructures | 290 | ||
| 10.5 THE EVOLUTION DURING THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD | 291 | ||
| 10.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS | 292 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 293 | ||
| REFERENCES | 293 | ||
| Chapter 11 | 294 | ||
| Sustainable water supply in pre-Columbian civilizations in Ancient Peru and South America | 294 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 294 | ||
| 11.2 THE ENVIRONMENT | 295 | ||
| 11.2.1 Geographic, hydrologic and climatic conditions | 295 | ||
| 11.2.2 Three drainage basins | 297 | ||
| 11.2.3 Climate | 297 | ||
| 11.2.4 El Niño phenomenon | 297 | ||
| 11.2.5 Other natural occurrences | 298 | ||
| 11.3 INDICATIVE TIMELINE OF SELECTED SOUTH AMERICAN PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATIONS | 298 | ||
| 11.4 THE INCA EMPIRE “TAHUANTINSUYO” | 299 | ||
| 11.4.1 Extension, origin and accomplishments | 299 | ||
| 11.4.1.1 Eradication of hunger | 300 | ||
| 11.4.2 Institutional framework and organisation | 300 | ||
| 11.4.2.1 Economy based on agriculture | 300 | ||
| 11.4.2.2 Strong hierarchical order | 301 | ||
| 11.4.2.3 Land categories and distribution | 301 | ||
| 11.4.2.4 Work tributes | 302 | ||
| 11.4.2.5 Communitarian organisation | 303 | ||
| 11.4.2.6 Pragmatic justice system | 303 | ||
| 11.4.2.7 Expansion policy | 303 | ||
| 11.4.2.8 Road network and communications | 303 | ||
| 11.5 THE PRE-COLUMBIAN WATER RESOURCES HERITAGE | 304 | ||
| 11.5.1 Caral-Supe | 304 | ||
| 11.5.2 Chavín | 305 | ||
| 11.5.2.1 Chavín de Huantar | 305 | ||
| 11.5.2.2 Cumbe Mayo aqueduct | 306 | ||
| 11.5.3 Mochica | 307 | ||
| 11.5.3.1 Irrigation systems | 307 | ||
| 11.5.3.2 Channels and aqueducts | 308 | ||
| 11.5.4 Nazca | 308 | ||
| 11.5.4.1 Underground aqueducts | 309 | ||
| 11.5.4.2 Nazca lines | 311 | ||
| 11.5.5 Pre-Columbian surveying instrument | 311 | ||
| 11.5.5.1 Functioning as a surveyors level | 312 | ||
| 11.5.5.2 Functioning as a theodolite | 312 | ||
| 11.5.6 Tiahuanaco and Huari | 312 | ||
| 11.5.6.1 Tiahuanaco, raised fields | 312 | ||
| 11.5.6.2 Huari, terraces | 313 | ||
| 11.5.7 Chimú | 313 | ||
| 11.5.7.1 Chan Chan | 313 | ||
| 11.5.7.2 The water resources of the Chimú in comparison to Babylonia and the Nile Valley | 314 | ||
| 11.5.8 Other pre-Columbian civilizations | 314 | ||
| 11.5.9 Inca | 315 | ||
| 11.5.9.1 Terraces | 316 | ||
| 11.5.10 Water cult/culture and mythology | 316 | ||
| 11.6 CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL COMMENTS | 319 | ||
| REFERENCES | 319 | ||
| Chapter 12 | 324 | ||
| Historical development of water supply in Cyprus | 324 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 324 | ||
| 12.2 PHYSICAL SETTING | 324 | ||
| 12.2.1 Location | 324 | ||
| 12.2.2 Climate conditions | 325 | ||
| 12.2.3 Hydrology | 326 | ||
| 12.2.3.1 Precipitation | 326 | ||
| 12.2.3.2 Air temperature | 326 | ||
| 12.2.3.3 Winds | 326 | ||
| 12.2.3.4 Humidity | 326 | ||
| 12.3 DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY IN CYPRUS THROUGH THE CENTURIES | 327 | ||
| 12.3.1 Neolithic Age (8500–3900 BC) | 327 | ||
| 12.3.2 Chalcolithic Age (3900–2500 BC) | 327 | ||
| 12.3.3 Bronze Age (2500–1050 BC) | 328 | ||
| 12.3.4 Geometric period (1050–750 BC) | 328 | ||
| 12.3.5 Archaic and classical period (750–325 BC) | 328 | ||
| 12.3.6 Hellenistic period (325–58 BC) | 330 | ||
| 12.3.7 Roman period (58 BC–330 AD) | 332 | ||
| 12.3.8 Byzantine period (330–1191 AD) | 334 | ||
| 12.3.9 Frankish (Lusignan) period (1191–1489 AD) and Venetian period (1489–1571 AD) | 334 | ||
| 12.3.10 Modern times (1571–1960 AD) | 334 | ||
| 12.3.10.1 The Ottoman period (1571–1878 AD) | 334 | ||
| 12.3.10.2 The British period (1878–1960 AD) | 335 | ||
| 12.3.11 Present time – Republic of Cyprus (1960–2011) | 338 | ||
| 12.3.11.1 The water resources situation | 338 | ||
| 12.3.11.2 Conservation of drinking water | 339 | ||
| 12.4 CONCLUSIONS | 339 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 340 | ||
| REFERENCES | 340 | ||
| Chapter 13 | 342 | ||
| Water supply in the Middle East during Roman and Byzantine periods | 342 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 342 | ||
| 13.1.1 Some elements of Middle East history | 342 | ||
| 13.1.2 Some generalities about water in the Middle East during Roman and Byzantine periods | 343 | ||
| 13.1.3 Structure of this chapter | 344 | ||
| 13.2 INFORMATION ABOUT SOME IMPORTANT CITIES IN THE MIDDLE EAST DURING ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS | 345 | ||
| 13.2.1 Ephesus | 345 | ||
| 13.2.2 Perge | 345 | ||
| 13.2.3 Aspendos | 345 | ||
| 13.2.4 Apamea | 347 | ||
| 13.3 WATER TRANSPORT OUTSIDE THE CITY LIMITS: THE AQUEDUCTS | 347 | ||
| 13.4 ENTRANCE OF WATER IN THE CITY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS | 353 | ||
| 13.4.1 Case study: Apamea | 353 | ||
| 13.5 WATER TRANSPORT INSIDE THE CITY LIMITS: MASONRY CHANNEL AND PIPELINES | 358 | ||
| 13.5.1 Masonry channels | 358 | ||
| 13.5.2 Piping systems | 363 | ||
| 13.6 URBANWATER USE: LATRINES, BATHS, FOUNTAINS AND CISTERNS | 365 | ||
| 13.6.1 Latrines | 365 | ||
| 13.6.2 Baths | 365 | ||
| 13.6.3 Fountains | 369 | ||
| 13.6.4 Cisterns | 369 | ||
| 13.7 CONCLUSION | 372 | ||
| REFERENCES | 373 | ||
| Chapter 14 | 374 | ||
| Water supply management technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations | 374 | ||
| 14.1 PROLEGOMENA | 374 | ||
| 14.2 WATER SUPPLY SOURCES, DAMS, AND RESERVOIRS | 374 | ||
| 14.3 WATER TRANSMISSION: AQUEDUCTS | 375 | ||
| 14.3.1 The Greek aqueduct systems during the Archaic period | 376 | ||
| 14.3.2 The Hellenistic aqueduct systems | 379 | ||
| 14.3.3 The Roman aqueduct systems | 381 | ||
| 14.4 CISTERNS | 388 | ||
| 14.5 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS | 389 | ||
| 14.6 FOUNTAINS | 394 | ||
| 14.7 PUBLIC BATHS | 397 | ||
| 14.8 CONCLUSIONS | 402 | ||
| REFERENCES | 403 | ||
| Chapter 15 | 406 | ||
| Water supply sustainability of ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica and the American south-west | 406 | ||
| 15.1 INTRODUCTION | 406 | ||
| 15.2 AMERICAN SOUTH-WEST | 407 | ||
| 15.2.1 The Hohokam (1 to 1450 AD) | 408 | ||
| 15.2.1.1 Salt River Valley | 408 | ||
| 15.2.1.2 Casa Grande and the Gila River | 410 | ||
| 15.2.1.3 Water sustainability issues of the Hohokam | 410 | ||
| 15.2.2 Ancestral Puebloans (600 to 1200 AD) | 411 | ||
| 15.2.2.1 Chaco Canyon | 411 | ||
| 15.2.2.2 Mesa Verde | 411 | ||
| 15.2.2.3 Water sustainability issues of the Ancestral Puebloans | 413 | ||
| 15.3 MESOAMERICA | 414 | ||
| 15.3.1 Water technologies in Mesoamerica | 415 | ||
| 15.3.2 Teotihuacan Empire (300–600 AD) | 415 | ||
| 15.3.3 Xochicalco (650–900 AD) | 416 | ||
| 15.3.4 The Maya | 416 | ||
| 15.3.4.1 Water supply sources of the Maya | 417 | ||
| 15.3.4.2 Water resources sustainability of the Maya | 419 | ||
| 15.3.5 The Aztec Empire (1150–1519 AD) | 419 | ||
| 15.4 ADVANCEMENT OF WATER TECHNOLOGY AFTER THE SPANISH CONQUEST | 421 | ||
| 15.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST | 425 | ||
| REFERENCES | 426 | ||
| Chapter 16 | 430 | ||
| Water supply of Athens in the antiquity | 430 | ||
| 16.1 INTRODUCTION | 430 | ||
| 16.1.1 Historical introduction | 430 | ||
| 16.1.2 The geology of Attica | 432 | ||
| 16.1.3 The Agora sub-basin | 436 | ||
| 16.2 MANAGEMENT OF LOCALWATER RESOURCES IN ANCIENTATHENS | 438 | ||
| 16.2.1 Springs | 438 | ||
| 16.2.2 Wells | 440 | ||
| 16.2.3 Complex nets of underground works | 441 | ||
| 16.2.3.1 The Hephaisteion area | 441 | ||
| 16.2.3.2 The Areopagus slopes | 443 | ||
| 16.2.3.3 Dörpfeld’s Excavation | 443 | ||
| 16.3 AQUEDUCTS SUPPLYING THE AGORA | 447 | ||
| 16.4 CORRELATION OF AQUEDUCTS AND DISTRIBUTION LINES IN THE AREA OF THE NATIONAL GARDEN | 449 | ||
| 16.5 AQUEDUCTS OF THE BASIN OF ATHENS | 452 | ||
| 16.6 WATERMILLS OF THE ATHENIAN AGORA | 457 | ||
| 16.7 CALCITE DEPOSITION IN PIPES AND AQUEDUCTS | 460 | ||
| 16.8 THE AGORA DRAINAGE NET | 461 | ||
| 16.8.1 The Great Drain | 461 | ||
| 16.8.2 South Branch of the Great Drain | 462 | ||
| 16.8.3 East section of the Great Drain | 462 | ||
| Epilogue | 463 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 463 | ||
| REFERENCES | 464 | ||
| Chapter 17 | 466 | ||
| History of the water supply of Rome as a paradigm of water services development in Italy | 466 | ||
| 17.1 INTRODUCTION | 466 | ||
| 17.2 ANCIENT DEVELOPMENT IN ROMAN WATERWORKS | 467 | ||
| 17.2.1 Etruscan heritage in Roman waterworks | 467 | ||
| 17.2.2 Development of waterworks from the founding of Rome to the Empire | 468 | ||
| 17.2.2.1 Aqueducts from the Alban Hills | 472 | ||
| 17.2.2.2 Aqueducts from the Aniene River Valley | 472 | ||
| 17.2.2.3 Aqueducts from the Sabatine Volcano | 472 | ||
| 17.2.3 Ancient Roman water distribution scheme | 473 | ||
| 17.2.4 Ancient Roman culture, expertise and administration in Roman aqueducts | 476 | ||
| 17.2.5 The fall of the Roman Empire and the end of the Roman aqueduct systems | 477 | ||
| 17.3 DEVELOPMENT FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO NOWADAYS | 478 | ||
| 17.3.1 From the middle ages to the “Renaissance” of water | 478 | ||
| 17.3.1.1 Vergine Aqueduct | 480 | ||
| 17.3.1.2 Felice Aqueduct | 481 | ||
| 17.3.1.3 Paolo Aqueduct | 481 | ||
| 17.3.1.4 Aqua Pia (former Marcia Aqueduct) | 481 | ||
| 17.3.2 The beginning of the new era in Roman water services | 482 | ||
| 17.3.3 Water services in present-day Rome | 482 | ||
| 17.4 CONCLUSIONS | 487 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 487 | ||
| REFERENCES | 488 | ||
| Chapter 18 | 490 | ||
| The historical development of water supplyto Iraklion, Crete, Greece from antiquity tothe present | 490 | ||
| 18.1 INTRODUCTION | 490 | ||
| 18.1.1 The Minoan age to the Greco-Roman period (ca. second millennium – first century BC) | 490 | ||
| 18.1.2 The Roman period (first century BC–fifth century AD) | 492 | ||
| 18.1.3 The Late Roman times to the Venetian Rule (fifth century AD–1204) | 493 | ||
| 18.1.4 The Venetian presence (1204–1669) | 494 | ||
| 18.1.4.1 The early concern for water | 494 | ||
| 18.1.4.2 Lack of water | 497 | ||
| 18.1.4.3 The Morosini aqueduct | 499 | ||
| 18.1.4.4 The water springs on the Youktas mountain | 502 | ||
| 18.1.4.5 Before the Turkish siege | 504 | ||
| 18.1.5 The Ottoman occupation (1669–1830) | 505 | ||
| 18.1.6 The Egyptian rule (1830–1840) | 506 | ||
| 18.1.7 The Last Ottoman rule (1840–1898) | 507 | ||
| 18.1.8 The Cretan State (1898–1913) | 509 | ||
| 18.1.9 From the Union of Crete with Greece to Modern Times (1913–today) | 510 | ||
| 18.2 CONCLUSION | 515 | ||
| REFERENCES | 516 | ||
| Chapter 19 | 520 | ||
| The historical development of water supply technologies in Barcelona, Spain | 520 | ||
| 19.1 INTRODUCTION | 520 | ||
| 19.2 PHYSICAL SETTINGS | 520 | ||
| 19.2.1 Location | 521 | ||
| 19.2.2 Climate conditions | 521 | ||
| 19.2.3 Hydrology | 521 | ||
| 19.2.3.1 Precipitation | 522 | ||
| 19.2.3.2 Humidity and potential evapotranspiration | 522 | ||
| 19.3 BARCELONAWATER SUPPLY BEFORE THE ROMAN PERIOD AND HISTORICAL FACTS | 522 | ||
| 19.4 WATER SUPPLY DURING THE ROMAN TIMES AND UP TO THE 11TH CENTURY | 523 | ||
| 19.5 WATER SUPPLY DURING THE MEDIEVAL TIMES | 524 | ||
| 19.6 THE NEW SUPPLY NEEDS RELATED TO THE ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC RECOVERY OF THE 18TH CENTURY | 528 | ||
| 19.7 THE WATER SERVICE FROM THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY TO THE APPROVAL OF THE EIXAMPLE (TOWN EXTENSION) PROJECT | 530 | ||
| 19.8 THE MODERN SUPPLY SYSTEMS OF THE EIXAMPLE AND OF THE PLATEAU OF BARCELONA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY | 534 | ||
| 19.9 THE FIGHT TO DEFINE THE WATER SUPPLY MODEL IN BARCELONA | 537 | ||
| 19.10 THE PRIVATE SUPPLY SERVICE: SOCIETAT GENERAL D’AIGÜES DE BARCELONA | 541 | ||
| 19.11 CONCLUSIONS | 541 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 542 | ||
| REFERENCES | 542 | ||
| Chapter 20 | 544 | ||
| Water services in Mexico City: The need to return to the IWRM principles of Tenochtitlán (700 years of water history) | 544 | ||
| 20.1 INTRODUCTION | 544 | ||
| 20.2 MEXICO VALLEY DESCRIPTION | 544 | ||
| 20.3 THE TIME OF THE AZTECS (1325-1521) | 546 | ||
| 20.3.1 Water supply | 546 | ||
| 20.3.2 Water uses | 546 | ||
| 20.3.2.1 Municipal use | 546 | ||
| 20.3.2.2 Agricultural use | 547 | ||
| 20.3.3 Sewer system | 548 | ||
| 20.3.3.1 Sanitation | 548 | ||
| 20.3.3.2 Flood control | 548 | ||
| 20.3.4 Fluvial transport | 548 | ||
| 20.3.5 Water management | 548 | ||
| 20.4 COLONIAL PERIOD | 549 | ||
| 20.4.1 Water sources | 549 | ||
| 20.4.1.1 Municipal supply | 549 | ||
| 20.4.1.2 Industrial use | 550 | ||
| 20.4.2 Sewer system | 550 | ||
| 20.4.2.1 Sanitation | 550 | ||
| 20.4.2.2 Flood control | 551 | ||
| 20.4.3 Water management | 551 | ||
| 20.4.4 Legal framework | 553 | ||
| 20.5 THE 18TH CENTURY | 553 | ||
| 20.5.1 Water sources | 554 | ||
| 20.5.2 Municipal supply | 554 | ||
| 20.5.3 Sewerage system | 554 | ||
| 20.5.4 Water administration | 554 | ||
| 20.6 19TH CENTURY | 555 | ||
| 20.6.1 Water sources | 555 | ||
| 20.6.2 Municipal supply | 555 | ||
| 20.6.2.1 Infrastructure | 555 | ||
| 20.6.2.2 Water quality | 556 | ||
| 20.6.3 The sewerage system | 557 | ||
| 20.6.3.1 Flood control | 557 | ||
| 20.6.3.2 Sanitation | 557 | ||
| 20.6.3.3 Water reuse | 557 | ||
| 20.6.4 Water administration | 558 | ||
| 20.6.4.1 Participation of the private sector | 558 | ||
| 20.6.5 Legal framework | 558 | ||
| 20.7 20TH CENTURY | 559 | ||
| 20.7.1 Water sources | 559 | ||
| 20.7.2 Municipal supply | 560 | ||
| 20.7.2.1 Water quality | 560 | ||
| 20.7.3 The sewerage system | 561 | ||
| 20.7.3.1 Flood control and sewers | 561 | ||
| 20.7.3.2 Wastewater management | 561 | ||
| 20.7.3.3 Water reuse | 561 | ||
| 20.7.4 Water administration | 562 | ||
| 20.8 DESCRIPTION OF MEXICO CITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY | 563 | ||
| 20.8.1 Water sources | 563 | ||
| 20.8.1.1 Groundwater overexploitation | 563 | ||
| 20.8.1.2 Subsidence in Mexico City | 564 | ||
| 20.8.2 Water quality | 565 | ||
| 20.8.3 Water uses | 565 | ||
| 20.8.3.1 Municipal supply | 565 | ||
| 20.8.4 Water quality | 566 | ||
| 20.8.4.1 Potabilisation | 566 | ||
| 20.8.4.2 Drinking water quality | 566 | ||
| 20.8.5 Sewerage system | 566 | ||
| 20.8.5.1 Sewer and flood control | 566 | ||
| 20.8.5.2 Wastewater treatment | 567 | ||
| 20.8.5.3 Disposal of non-treated wastewater | 567 | ||
| 20.8.6 Water management | 568 | ||
| 20.8.7 Future water demand | 569 | ||
| 20.8.8 Water reuse options | 569 | ||
| 20.8.8.1 Agricultural reuse | 569 | ||
| 20.8.8.2 Industrial reuse | 569 | ||
| 20.8.8.3 Municipal reuse | 569 | ||
| 20.8.9 Integrated management of water | 571 | ||
| 20.9 CONCLUSIONS | 572 | ||
| REFERENCES | 573 | ||
| Chapter 21 | 576 | ||
| The evolution of water supply throughout the millennia: A short overview | 576 | ||
| 21.1 INTRODUCTION | 576 | ||
| 21.2 WATER TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS | 577 | ||
| 21.3 SOME MAJOR CITIES | 581 |