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Membrane Based Desalination

Membrane Based Desalination

Enrico Drioli | Alessandra Criscuoli | Francesca Macedonio

(2011)

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Book Details

Abstract

Reverse osmosis is the dominant technology in water desalination. However, some critical issues remain open: improvement of water quality, enhancement of the recovery factor, reduction of the unit water cost, minimizing the brine disposal impact. This book aims to solve these problems with an innovative approach based on the integration of different membrane operations in pre-treatment and post-treatment stages. 
Membrane-Based Desalination: An Integrated Approach (acronym MEDINA) has been a three year project funded by the European Commission within the 6th Framework Program. The project team has developed a work programme aiming to improve the current design and operation practices of membrane systems used for water desalination, trying to solve or, at least, to decrease the critical issues of sea and brackish water desalination systems. In the book, the main results achieved in the nine Work Packages constituting the project will be described, and dismissed by the leaders of the various WPs. 
The following areas are explored in the book: the development of advanced analytical methods for feed water characterization, appropriate fouling indicators and prediction tools, procedures and protocols at full-scale desalination facilities; the identification of optimal seawater pre-treatment strategies by designing advanced hybrid membrane processes (submerged hollow fibre filtration/reaction, adsorption/ion exchange/ozonation) and comparison with conventional methods; the optimisation of RO membrane module configuration, cleaning strategies, reduction of scaling potential by NF; the development of strategies aiming to approach the concept of Zero Liquid Discharge (increasing the water recovery factor up to 95% by using Membrane Distillation - MD; bringing concentrates to solids by Membrane Crystallization or Wind Intensified Enhanced Evaporation) and to reduce the brine disposal environmental impact and cost; increase the sustainability of desalination process by reducing energy consumption (evaluation of MD, demonstration of a new energy recovery device for SWRO installations) and use of renewable energy (wind and solar). 
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Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Half title page 2
Title page 4
Copyright page 5
Contents 6
Acknowledgement 12
List of contributors 14
Introduction 18
Chapter 1 20
Water quality assessment tools 20
1.1 INTRODUCTION 21
1.2 WATER QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION TOOLS 22
1.2.1 Liquid chromatography – organic carbon detection 22
1.2.2 Fluorescence excitation emission matrix 24
1.2.3 Enumeration, identifi cation and diversity of marine microorganisms including bacteria and phytoplankton 27
1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULATE FOULING INDICES 31
1.3.1 SDI and MFI 31
1.3.1.1 Tools and methods 31
1.3.1.2 Evolution of the fouling indexes during a DMF cycle 31
1.3.1.3 Comparison granular fi ltration/membrane fi ltration 32
1.3.1.4 Conclusions 33
1.3.2 Modifi ed fouling index ultrafi ltration at constant fl ux 33
1.3.2.1 How to measure the MFI-UF at constant fl ux? 34
1.3.2.2 Which pore size of membrane to use? 34
1.3.2.3 Which membrane material to use? 35
1.3.2.4 At which fl ux should the test be performed? 35
1.3.2.5 Has salinity an effect in the MFI-UF measurements? 35
1.3.2.6 Applications 36
1.3.2.6.1 Raw water comparison 36
1.3.2.6.2 Plant profi ling 37
1.3.2.6.3 RO particulate fouling prediction 37
1.3.3 Crossfl ow sampler modifi ed fouling index ultrafi ltration 38
1.3.3.1 The rationale of CFS-MFIUF 38
1.3.3.2 Fundamental study of CFS-MFIUF 38
1.3.3.3 Effect of CFS and dead-end permeate fl ux ratio 39
1.3.3.4 Prediction of RO fouling using CFS-MFIUF 39
1.4 ASSESSMENT OF BIOFOULING POTENTIAL OF SALT AND BRACKISH WATER FOR RO DESALINATION PLANTS – BDOC/LC-OCD 40
1.4.1 Method 40
1.4.2 Sampling 42
1.4.3 Test procedure 42
1.4.4 Results 42
1.5 DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATIONS OF AOC AND ATP IN SEAWATER 43
1.5.1 Introduction 43
1.5.1.1 Biofouling and substrate utilization by bacteria 43
1.5.1.2 Microbial growth potential of feed water 44
1.5.1.3 Microbial biomass 44
1.5.1.4 Study objectives 44
1.5.2 Materials and methods 44
1.5.2.1 Bacterial strains and precultivation 44
1.5.2.2 ATP analysis 45
1.5.2.3 Results 45
1.5.2.3.1 Selection of test strains 45
1.5.2.3.2 Nutritional versatility of strain HC and its growth yield for acetate 46
1.5.2.3.3 AOC in North Sea water and feed water 46
1.5.2.3.4 Determination of the ATP concentration of seawater 47
1.5.2.4 Discussion and conclusions 47
1.5.2.4.1 AOC 47
1.5.2.4.2 ATP 48
REFERENCES 48
Chapter 2 50
Evaluation and comparison of seawater and brackish water pre-treatment 50
2.1 REMOVAL OF ORGANIC MATTER AND MICROBIAL CHARACTERIZATION IN PRETREATMENT MBR SYSTEM FOR RO SEAWATER DESALINATION 51
2.1.1 Introduction 51
2.1.2 Results 52
2.2 SUBMERGED ULTRAFILTRATION FOR REDUCING NOM IN SWRO DESALINATION 56
2.2.1 Introduction 56
2.2.2 Experimental activity 56
2.2.3 Results and discussions 59
2.2.4 Conclusions 61
2.3 COMPARISON OF GRANULAR MEDIA FILTRATION AND LOW-PRESSURE MEMBRANE FILTRATION FOR SEAWATER PRETREATMENT 61
2.3.1 Introduction 61
2.3.2 Pilot-scale experimental set up 61
2.3.2.1 Granular media fi ltration with pre-coagulation/fl occulation 61
2.3.2.2 Membrane pretreatment process 62
2.3.2.3 Reverse osmosis pilot units 63
2.3.3 Water quality parameters and fouling indices 63
2.3.4 Results and interpretation 63
2.3.4.1 Raw seawater quality 63
2.3.4.2 Seawater quality at the outlet of each pretreatment 64
2.3.4.2.1 Conventional analytical parameters (turbidity, particle counts, and SDI) 64
2.3.4.2.2 MFI measurements 64
2.3.4.2.3 Advanced analytical parameters – organic and bacteria content 65
2.3.4.2.4 Impact of granular media fi ltration and MF/UF pretreatment on the RO process 65
2.3.5 CONCLUSIONS 67
2.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT PRETREATMENT METHODS FOR RO DESALINATION 68
2.4.1 Biofi lter as pretreatment to membrane based desalination: evaluation in terms of fouling index 68
2.4.1.1 Objectives 68
2.4.1.2 Experimental setup 68
2.4.1.3 Variation of seawater characteristics during experiments 68
2.4.1.4 Effect of fi ltration velocity to turbidity removal 69
2.4.1.5 SDI10 and MFI 69
2.4.1.6 Head build up 69
2.4.1.7 Summary 70
2.4.2 Fibre media fi ltration as a pretretment for seawater 70
2.4.2.1 Objectives 70
2.4.2.2 Materials and methods 70
2.4.2.2.1 Seawater 70
2.4.2.2.2 Coagulation 71
2.4.2.2.3 Fibre fi lter 71
2.4.2.3 Operational conditions 71
2.4.2.4 Results and discussion 71
2.4.2.4.1 Effect of in-line coagulation 71
2.4.2.4.2 Effect of different packing densities and fi ltration velocities 71
2.4.2.5 Pressure drop and turbidity 72
2.4.2.5.1 Effect of in-line coagulation 72
2.4.2.5.2 Effect of different packing densities and fi ltration velocities 72
2.4.2.6 Summary 73
2.4.3 Submerged microfi ltration coupled with physico-chemical processes as pre-treatment to sea water desalination 73
2.4.3.1 Background 73
2.4.3.1.1 Critical fl ux experiments with seawater 73
2.4.3.1.2 Effect of pre-treatment on fouling reduction 74
2.4.3.2 Summary 75
2.5 SUBMERGED HOLLOW FIBER SYSTEM AS PRE-TREATMENT FOR THE SEA WATER REVERSE OSMOSIS: EFFECT OF THE OPERATION CONDITIONS AND THE CHARACTERIZATIONS OF THE PERMEATE QUALITY 75
2.5.1 Introduction 75
2.5.2 Method and materials 75
2.5.3 Data analysis 76
2.5.4 Results and discussions 76
2.5.5 Conclusions 80
2.6 ULTRAFILTRATION-BASED HYBRID PROCESSES FOR PRE-TREATMENT TO SEAWATER REVERSE OSMOSIS DESALINATION 2.6.1 Introduction 80
2.6.1 Introduction 80
2.6.1.4 Conclusions 86
2.6.1.3 Results and discussion 83
2.6.1.2.1 Materials and methods 82
2.6.1.2 Experiments with real seawater 82
2.6.1.1 Preliminary tests with synthetic solutions 81
REFERENCES 86
Chapter 3 88
Development of tools for RO fouling characterization and understanding 88
3.1. MEMBRANE AUTOPSIES 88
3.1.1 Introduction 88
3.1.2 Presentation of studied sites 89
3.1.3 Membrane sampling protocol and analytical tools 89
3.1.4 Results 90
3.2 SPECIFIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ANALYSES 95
3.2.1 13C-NMR 95
3.2.2 Flash pyrolysis – GC/MS analysis 96
3.2.3 Thermochemolysis TMAH analysis: fatty acids analysis 98
3.3 QUANTITATIVE BIOMASS PARAMETERS 99
3.4 MOLECULAR ANALYSIS 101
3.4.1 Adaptation of molecular tools to analyze microbial community structure: homogeneity and reproducibility 101
3.4.2 Bacterial diversity at different desalination plants 102
3.4.3 Evolution of bacterial communities in SWRO membranes from one full-scale desalination plant (Site D) according to module u 102
3.4.4 Conclusions 103
3.5 GENERAL CONCLUSION ON AUTOPSY TOOLS RELEVANCY 104
3.5.1 Tools for microscopic observation 104
3.5.2 Inorganic matter characterization 105
3.5.3 Organic matter characterization 105
3.5.4 Microbial characterization 106
REFERENCES 107
Chapter 4 110
Development of cleaning strategies for RO membranes 110
4.1 CLEANING OF SPIRAL-WOUND MEMBRANES 110
4.1.1 Introduction 110
4.1.1.1 Principles of biofouling processes and cleaning 110
4.1.2 Study objectives 111
4.1.3 Summary of results 111
4.1.3.1 Evaluation of practical experiences 111
4.1.3.2 Laboratory test for determining biomass removal effi cacy 112
4.1.3.3 Effects of chemicals on restoring membrane performance in laboratory tests\nand in a pilot plant 112
4.1.4 General discussion 113
4.1.4.1 Membrane-cleaning paradox 113
4.1.4.2 Limited removal of attached biomass 113
4.1.4.3 Tools and tests 113
4.1.4.4 Restrictions in the use of chemicals 114
4.1.5 Conclusions and recommendations 114
4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF A LABORATORY METHOD FOR TESTING MEMBRANE CLEANING PROCEDURES 114
4.2.1 Introduction 114
4.2.2 Principle of the test 115
4.2.3 Production of biofi lm samples 115
4.2.4 Biofi lm samples and biomass concentrations 115
4.2.5 Cleaning test procedures 116
4.2.6 Cleaning effi ciency for biofi lms on polymer tubing 116
4.2.7 Validation tests 118
4.2.8 Discussion and conclusions 119
4.3 EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS ON MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY AND FOULANTS IN LABORATORY TESTS 119
4.3.1 Introduction 119
4.3.2 Methods and materials 120
4.3.3 Analysis of inorganic compounds 121
4.3.4 Results and discussion 123
4.3.5 Conclusions 127
4.4 EFFECTS OF CLEANING ON MEMBRANE PERFORMANCE IN A PILOT PLANT 128
4.4.1 Introduction 128
4.4.2 Pilot plant, membranes and test procedures 128
4.4.2.1 Pilot plant 128
4.4.2.2 Membrane elements 128
4.4.2.3 Test protocols 129
4.4.2.3.1 Hydraulic characterization of modules 129
4.4.2.3.2 Principle 129
4.4.2.4 Cleaning procedures 129
4.4.2.5 Analytical procedures 130
4.4.3 Results 130
4.4.3.1 Permeability, pressure drop and salts retention 130
4.4.3.2 Cleaning solution analysis 130
4.4.4 Discussion and conclusions 132
4.4.4.1 Discussion 132
4.4.4.2 Conclusions 132
REFERENCES 132
Chapter 5 134
Process strategies for mitigation of impact of concentrates on the environment 134
5.1 INTRODUCTION 135
5.2 WT 5.1: REDUCTION OF BRINE VOLUME 135
5.2.1 BWRO concentrate disposal by deep well injection: design criteria for BWRO plants and fi eld test results 135
5.2.2 Vacum membrane distillation 141
5.3 WT 5.2: RECOVERY OF DISSOLVED SALTS AS CRYSTALLINE PRODUCT 149
5.3.1 Membrane crystallization 150
5.3.2 Wind-Aided Intensifi ed eVaporation 157
5.3.2.1 BGU’s task 157
5.3.2.1.1 Tasks description 157
5.4 WT 5.3: ECONOMIC EVALUATION 160
5.4.1 Description and results of the economical evaluation 160
5.5 CONCLUSIONS 165
REFERENCES 165
Chapter 6 168
Innovative technologies to reduce energy consumption in seawater desalination facilities 168
6.1 INTRODUCTION 168
6.2 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MEMBRANES 169
6.3 MEMBRANE DISTILLATION AND SOLAR ENERGY 173
6.3.1 Development and validation of a meteorogical model 174
6.3.2 Experiments at lab-scale on confi gurations coupling solar collector and VMD 175
6.3.3 Design of a semi-industrial pilot plant 175
6.4 STUDY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR SYSTEMS COUPLED WITH MEMBRANE DISTILLATION 176
REFERENCES 179
Chapter 7 180
Optimization and modelling of seawater and brackish water reverse osmosis desalination processes 180
7.1 INTRODUCTION 180
7.2 OPTIMIZATION OF NF MEMBRANES USED IN THE PRE-TREATMENT OF MEMBRANE BASED DESALINATION 181
7.2.1 Membrane preparation 181
7.2.2 Membrane characterization 181
7.2.3 Development of NF membranes with low fouling properties 185
7.2.4 Conclusions and outlook 186
7.3 USE OF MEMBRANE CONTACTORS FOR CONTROLLING THE WATER GAS COMPOSITION 186
7.3.1 Introduction 186
7.3.2 Membrane characterization 187
7.3.3 Results and discussion 187
7.3.4 Conclusions and outlook 190
7.4 COMPREHENSIVE MODELLING OF THE RO DESALINATION PROCESS AND OPTIMIZING HYDRAULICS IN SPIRAL WOUND ELEMENTS 192
7.4.1 Introduction 192
7.4.2 Materials and methods 193
7.4.3 CFD modelling 195
7.4.4 Results and discussion 196
7.5 SUMMARY 200
REFERENCES 201
Chapter 8 204
Integrated system confi guration 204
8.1 INTRODUCTION 204
8.2 WT 8.1: CRITICAL STATE OF THE ART OF THE DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES 205
8.3 WT 8.2 AND WT 8.3: STUDY AND OPTIMIZATION OF DIFFERENT INTEGRATED SYSTEMS 206
8.3.1 Integrated membrane processes: systems’ design and analysis 208
8.3.2 Integrated membrane processes: systems’ modelling 211
8.4 WT 8.4: ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE INTEGRATED MEMBRANE SYSTEMS 212
8.5 WT 8.5: QUANTITATIVE INDICATORS 214
8.6 CONCLUSIONS 215
REFERENCES 215
Chapter 9 218
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) of membrane-based desalination plants 218
9.1 INTRODUCTION 218
9.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 219
9.2.1 Concentrate disposal 219
9.2.2 Pretreatment and cleaning chemicals 220
9.2.3 Energy use 221
9.2.4 Other environmental concerns 221
9.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) 222
9.3.1 EIA process 222
9.3.2 Environmental monitoring 223
9.4 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES (BAT) 224
9.5 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM 225
9.5.1 Case study 225
9.6 ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED MEMBRANE SYSTEMS 230
9.6.1 Integrated fl ow-sheets 230
9.6.2 Results and discussion 230
9.7 CONCLUSIONS 232
9.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 233
REFERENCES 233
Conclusions 234
Appendix I 238
Deliverables list of MEDINA project 238
Appendix II 242
List of publications 242
JOURNAL ARTICLES 242
MAGAZINE ARTICLES 243
BOOKS, BOOK CHAPTERS, REPORTS 243
CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 243
WORKSHOPS AND TRAINING 245
FURTHER PRESENTATIONS 246