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Abstract
Part of Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water Set - buy all five books together to save over 30%!
There is increasing concern regarding the presence of metals, particularly heavy metals in drinking water. In addition to the well-known toxic effects of lead, which are discussed at length in the Best Practice Guide on the Control of Lead in Drinking Water (in this series of Guides), the latest WHO guide values for maximum mean concentrations of arsenic, nickel and others in drinking water have been lowered compared to previous versions. European Union, USA and National standards for drinking water have followed the trend based largely on the same toxicological information.
There is currently growing interest in the presence of hexavalent chromium in drinking water following its finding in some drinking waters in the USA above the national upper limit for total chromium and research suggesting that this limit needs to be considerably lowered. Some metals, particularly iron and manganese are associated with the production of discoloured (dirty) water in distribution systems and are therefore very important to the production of water with acceptable aesthetic qualities. Others (iron and aluminium) are key to the treatment of raw waters to drinking water standards. In most cases it is not possible to continuously monitor waters for metals and suitable sampling programmes must be designed and carried out to give results representative of the true water quality.
The Best Practice Guide on Sampling and Monitoring of Metals in Drinking Water gives guidance on the design and quality control of sampling programmes for metals in Raw waters, in the water treatment works, in the drinking water distribution system and at the consumers tap. It also gives guidance on the analytical methods that can be used for the analysis of metals and quality control of those methods. Sampling programmes on the same water will vary according to the purpose for which they are carried out and the statistical techniques used to determine and design the different types of programme are outlined. Finally some case studies of optimisation of sampling are set out.
Best Practice Guide on Sampling and Monitoring of Metals in Drinking Water is a valuable text for scientists, engineers and quality managers working in drinking water supply, laboratory managers and scientists who carry out sampling and analysis, and water industry consultants. It is also an excellent resource for post graduate and research workers in the field of drinking water.
Editor: Dr Adam Postawa, AGH University, Krakow, Poland
"Sampling plays a crucial role in a Drinking Water Safety Plan, the risk management plan of a drinking water treatment plant. This Best Practice Guide on the Sampling and Monitoring of Metals in Drinking Water gives the state-of-the-art tools to develop a sampling and monitoring programme for both operational and compliance monitoring." DR EDDO HOEKSTRA, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover page | 1 | ||
| Half title page | 2 | ||
| Title page | 4 | ||
| Copyright page | 5 | ||
| Contents | 6 | ||
| About this Best Practice Guide | 10 | ||
| Authors | 12 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 14 | ||
| Acronyms | 16 | ||
| Definitions | 18 | ||
| Foreword | 20 | ||
| Executive Summary | 22 | ||
| Chapter 1 | 26 | ||
| Introduction | 26 | ||
| 1.1 THE SCOPE OF THE BEST PRACTICE GUIDE | 26 | ||
| 1.2 THE ROLE OF SAMPLING AND MONITORING | 27 | ||
| The basis on which guideline values are set | 27 | ||
| Toxicity | 27 | ||
| Carcinogenicity | 28 | ||
| Acceptability aspects | 28 | ||
| Guidelines and regulations for drinking water quality | 29 | ||
| World Health Organization guidelines | 29 | ||
| European Union (EU) Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3rd Nov 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption | 29 | ||
| United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) | 31 | ||
| Other standards | 31 | ||
| Raw waters | 31 | ||
| Water during treatment | 32 | ||
| Operational control | 33 | ||
| 1.3 DRINKING WATER SAFETY PLANNING | 34 | ||
| The Bonn Charter for Safe Drinking Water | 34 | ||
| Drinking water safety plans | 35 | ||
| Chapter 2 | 38 | ||
| Basic principles of sampling | 38 | ||
| 2.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY | 38 | ||
| Lone worker arrangements | 38 | ||
| Raw water sampling | 38 | ||
| Monitoring instruments | 39 | ||
| Hazardous materials | 39 | ||
| Toxic gases | 40 | ||
| Confined spaces | 40 | ||
| 2.2 DESIGN OF SAMPLING PROGRAMMES | 40 | ||
| System characteristics and archival data | 41 | ||
| Sampling location | 41 | ||
| Sample variability | 41 | ||
| 2.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES | 42 | ||
| Spot samples | 42 | ||
| Periodic samples | 42 | ||
| Continuous samples | 43 | ||
| Series of samples | 43 | ||
| Composite samples | 43 | ||
| Large volume samples | 43 | ||
| 2.4 SAMPLING EQUIPMENT | 44 | ||
| Sample bottles/containers | 44 | ||
| 2.5 SAMPLE PRETREATMENT AND PRESERVATION | 44 | ||
| Filtration | 44 | ||
| Preservation | 45 | ||
| Sample identification | 47 | ||
| Avoidance of sample contamination | 47 | ||
| Transport and storage time | 48 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 48 | ||
| Chapter 3 | 50 | ||
| Quality assurance of sampling procedures | 50 | ||
| 3.1 ROLE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE | 50 | ||
| 3.2 SAMPLING STRATEGY | 50 | ||
| 3.3 VALIDATION OF SAMPLING PROCEDURE | 50 | ||
| 3.4 QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMME | 51 | ||
| Replicate control samples | 51 | ||
| Blank/field blank samples | 52 | ||
| Spiked samples | 54 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 55 | ||
| Chapter 4 | 56 | ||
| Analytical methods for metals in water | 56 | ||
| 4.1 SELECTION OF AN ANALYTICAL METHOD | 56 | ||
| 4.2 COLORIMETRIC METHODS | 57 | ||
| 4.3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY METHODS | 59 | ||
| 4.4 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY METHODS | 60 | ||
| 4.5 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA METHODS (ICP) | 64 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 65 | ||
| Chapter 5 | 66 | ||
| Analytical quality control | 66 | ||
| 5.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS | 66 | ||
| 5.2 INTERNAL QUALITY CONTROL | 66 | ||
| 5.3 EXTERNAL QUALITY CONTROL | 67 | ||
| 5.4 EXAMPLE OF AN ANALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM | 67 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 68 | ||
| Chapter 6 | 70 | ||
| Monitoring metals in raw water resources | 70 | ||
| 6.1 WHAT IS RAW WATER? | 70 | ||
| 6.2 REASONS FOR MONITORING RAW WATER | 70 | ||
| 6.3 TYPES OF SAMPLES | 70 | ||
| 6.4 SAMPLING LOCATIONS | 71 | ||
| Surface waters | 71 | ||
| Lakes, ponds and reservoirs | 71 | ||
| Rivers and streams | 74 | ||
| Groundwater | 74 | ||
| Wells/Boreholes | 74 | ||
| Springs | 79 | ||
| 6.5 SAMPLING FREQUENCY | 79 | ||
| 6.6 SAMPLING DEVICES | 80 | ||
| Samplers, bailers | 80 | ||
| Pumps | 82 | ||
| 6.7 AUTOMATIC SAMPLING AND ONLINE ANALYSIS SYSTEMS | 84 | ||
| 6.8 PASSIVE SAMPLING | 84 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 85 | ||
| Chapter 7 | 86 | ||
| Sampling and monitoring metals in water treatment | 86 | ||
| 7.1 METALS SIGNIFICANT FOR WATER TREATMENT | 86 | ||
| 7.2 REASONS FOR MONITORING | 87 | ||
| Performance Monitoring | 87 | ||
| Process control | 87 | ||
| Regulatory compliance | 87 | ||
| Investigatory | 88 | ||
| 7.3 MONITORING LOCATIONS | 88 | ||
| Sample lines | 88 | ||
| Sample taps | 88 | ||
| Labelled treatment works final water sample tap, outside WTW | 90 | ||
| Dip sampling | 90 | ||
| 7.4 METHODS OF MONITORING | 90 | ||
| On-site analysis | 91 | ||
| Sampling for analysis by remote laboratory | 91 | ||
| 7.5 INTERPRETATION OF DATA | 91 | ||
| Investigating failures of standards at treatment works | 91 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 92 | ||
| Chapter 8 | 94 | ||
| Monitoring metals in distribution systems | 94 | ||
| 8.1 METALS CAUSING PROBLEMS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS | 94 | ||
| 8.2 REASONS FOR MONITORING | 95 | ||
| Investigatory | 95 | ||
| Incident management | 95 | ||
| Regulatory compliance | 95 | ||
| Operational | 95 | ||
| Investment planning and appraisal | 95 | ||
| 8.3 PLANNING A SAMPLE SURVEY | 95 | ||
| 8.4 MONITORING LOCATIONS Storage points | 96 | ||
| Hydrants and standpipes | 97 | ||
| Ferrule tapings | 97 | ||
| Meter chambers/boundary boxes | 97 | ||
| 8.5 METHODS OF MONITORING | 97 | ||
| On-line monitors | 97 | ||
| On-site analysis | 97 | ||
| Sampling for analysis by remote laboratory | 98 | ||
| 8.6 INTERPRETATION OF DATA | 98 | ||
| What do results mean? | 98 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 99 | ||
| Chapter 9 | 100 | ||
| Monitoring metals at consumers’ taps | 100 | ||
| 9.1 RELEVANCE OF CONSUMER’S TAP | 100 | ||
| 9.2 SAMPLING METHODS | 100 | ||
| Fully flushed samples | 100 | ||
| First draw samples | 101 | ||
| Proportional samples | 102 | ||
| Stagnation samples | 103 | ||
| Random daytime samples (RDT) | 104 | ||
| 9.3 ZONAL MONITORING | 105 | ||
| Definition of water supply systems for monitoring and control purposes | 105 | ||
| Compliance monitoring | 106 | ||
| Inventory monitoring | 107 | ||
| Variation in results from random daytime sampling | 107 | ||
| Using statistical tools to assess confidence in RDT sample results | 107 | ||
| Benchmark monitoring at selected properties | 108 | ||
| 9.4 INVESTIGATIONS AT INDIVIDUAL PROPERTIES | 109 | ||
| Investigating problems | 109 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 110 | ||
| Chapter 10 | 112 | ||
| Statistical tools for the evaluation of results | 112 | ||
| 10.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS | 112 | ||
| Errors | 112 | ||
| Total error | 112 | ||
| Random errors | 112 | ||
| Systematic error (bias) | 113 | ||
| Gross errors | 113 | ||
| Descriptive statistics | 114 | ||
| Measures of location (central tendency) | 114 | ||
| Measures of spread | 114 | ||
| Measures of skewness | 115 | ||
| Measures of kurtosis | 115 | ||
| Data distributions | 115 | ||
| 10.2 SELECTED PARAMETRIC AND NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICAL TESTS | 116 | ||
| Distribution estimation | 116 | ||
| One-sample t test | 117 | ||
| F-test of equality of variances | 118 | ||
| 10.3 CONFIDENCE INTERVAL FOR MEAN | 118 | ||
| 10.4 COMPLIANCE WITH THRESHOLDS | 119 | ||
| Compliance with thresholds expressed as means or percentiles | 119 | ||
| Non – parametric methods | 120 | ||
| 10.5 ANOVA AND ROBUST ANOVA | 121 | ||
| 10.6 DATA PRESENTATION | 123 | ||
| Box-plot | 123 | ||
| Histogram | 124 | ||
| Probability plots | 124 | ||
| Control charts | 124 | ||
| Scheme of control chart construction and interpretation (Croll, 2010) | 127 | ||
| Mean and range control charts | 127 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 131 | ||
| Chapter 11 | 132 | ||
| Developing monitoring strategies | 132 | ||
| 11.1 SOURCE TO TAP OVERVIEW | 132 | ||
| 11.2 REASONS FOR MONITORING | 132 | ||
| The main reasons for monitoring are: | 132 | ||
| Compliance: | 132 | ||
| Inventory: | 132 | ||
| Operational: | 132 | ||
| Risk assessment: | 134 | ||
| 11.3 CONSEQUENCES OF INADEQUATE MONITORING DATA | 135 | ||
| 11.4 STEPS TO DEVELOPING A SUCCESSFUL MONITORING STRATEGY | 135 | ||
| KEY POINTS: | 135 | ||
| Appendix 1 | 136 | ||
| Case studies | 136 | ||
| A1.1 BUCHAREST (RO) | 136 | ||
| Description of area: | 136 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 136 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 136 | ||
| Sampling points: | 137 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 137 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 137 | ||
| Source of data: | 137 | ||
| Recommendations: | 138 | ||
| A1.2 ENGLAND AND WALES (UK) | 138 | ||
| Description of area: | 138 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 138 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 138 | ||
| Sampling points: | 138 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 138 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 138 | ||
| Lead (Pb) | 138 | ||
| Copper (Cu) | 139 | ||
| Iron (Fe) | 140 | ||
| Nickel (Ni) | 140 | ||
| Source of data (2005 to 2010): | 141 | ||
| Conclusions: | 141 | ||
| A1.3 KRAKOW (PL) | 141 | ||
| Description of area: | 141 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 141 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 141 | ||
| Sampling points: | 141 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 141 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 142 | ||
| Source of data | 142 | ||
| Recommendations: | 142 | ||
| A1.4 MYSZKOW (PL) | 142 | ||
| Description of area: | 142 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 142 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 142 | ||
| Sampling points | 143 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 143 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 143 | ||
| Source of data | 143 | ||
| Recommendations | 143 | ||
| A1.5 TARGU MURES (RO) | 143 | ||
| Description of area: | 144 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 144 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 144 | ||
| Sampling points: | 144 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 144 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 144 | ||
| Source of data: | 145 | ||
| Recommendations | 145 | ||
| A1.6 TIMISOARA (RO) | 146 | ||
| Description of area: | 146 | ||
| Drinking water supplier: | 146 | ||
| Source of raw water: | 146 | ||
| Sampling points: | 146 | ||
| Sampling techniques: | 146 | ||
| Monitoring data: | 147 | ||
| Source of data | 147 | ||
| Recommendations: | 148 | ||
| References | 150 |