BOOK
Best Practice Guide on the Control of Iron and Manganese in Water Supply
Adam Postawa | Colin Hayes | Alessandra Criscuoli | Francesca Macedonio | Andreas N. Angelakis | Joan B. Rose | Andrew Maier | Drew C. McAvoy
(2013)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
This Best Practice Guide on the Control of Iron and Manganese in Water Supply is one of a series produced by the International Water Association’s Specialist Group on Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water.
Iron and manganese are often found in soft upland water sources associated with natural organic matter and are also commonly found in the groundwater abstracted from confined and unconfined aquifers. The presence of iron and manganese in water is one of the most frequent reasons for customers’ complaint due to aesthetic issues (yellow, brown and black or stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures). These two metals can be removed fairly readily by physico-chemical treatment. The municipal treatment systems deployed derive benefit from their larger scale, particularly in relation to control, but the processes used are less suitable for the numerous small supplies that are the most common water supplies throughout Europe, especially in rural areas. One important source of iron in drinking water is from old corroded cast-iron water mains, historically the material used most commonly in supply networks. Replacement and refurbishment is very expensive and the major challenge is how best to prioritize available expenditure.
The purpose for this Best Practice Guide on the Control of Iron and Manganese in Water Supply is to give readers the broad view of a problem based on state-of-the-art compilation of the range of scientific, engineering, regulatory and operational issues concerned with the control of iron and manganese in drinking water. The Guide is of interest to water utility practitioners, health agencies and policy makers, as well as students on civil engineering and environmental engineering courses.
Authors: Dr Adam Postawa, AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environment Protection, Krakow, Poland and Dr Colin R Hayes, University of Swansea, UK, Chair of IWA Specialist Group on Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover\r | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| About this Best Practice Guide | ix | ||
| Authors | x | ||
| Acknowledgements | xi | ||
| Review panel | xi | ||
| Acronyms | xii | ||
| Definitions | xiv | ||
| Foreword | xvi | ||
| Executive Summary | xvii | ||
| Chapter 1:\rIntroduction: Why there are problems with iron and manganese in water supply | 1 | ||
| 1.1 NATURE OF IRON AND MANGANESE | 1 | ||
| 1.2 CONSUMERS’ PERCEPTION | 3 | ||
| 1.3 ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL PROBLEMS\r | 3 | ||
| Treatment | 3 | ||
| Corrosion in distribution network | 4 | ||
| Chapter 2:\rNatural sources of iron and manganese in water | 6 | ||
| 2.1 HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY OF IRON AND MANGANESE\r | 6 | ||
| Iron | 6 | ||
| Manganese | 7 | ||
| 2.2 VARIABILITY OF CONCENTRATIONS OF IRON AND MANGANESE IN GROUNDWATER | 8 | ||
| 2.3 CHANGES IN IRON AND MANGANESE CONCENTRATIONS DURING GROUNDWATER EXPLOITATION | 13 | ||
| 2.4 SURFACE WATERS\r | 16 | ||
| Sources of iron and manganese in surface waters | 16 | ||
| Controls on Fe and Mn mobilization | 16 | ||
| Rivers and streams | 17 | ||
| Lakes and reservoirs | 17 | ||
| Chapter 3:\rSources of iron and manganese in drinking water distribution network | 19 | ||
| 3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS | 19 | ||
| 3.2 CONTAMINATION WITH IRON DURING TREATMENT | 19 | ||
| 3.3 IRON AND MANGANESE IN WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS\r | 20 | ||
| Corrosion of iron | 20 | ||
| Formation and structure of corrosion deposits | 21 | ||
| Role of microorganisms | 22 | ||
| Reactions on surfaces covered with deposits and their influence on water quality | 24 | ||
| Corrosion of galvanised service pipes and domestic installations | 26 | ||
| 3.4 SECONDARY WATER CONTAMINATION BY IRON AND MANGANESE | 26 | ||
| Water treatment and corrosion inhibitors | 27 | ||
| Exploitation regime and distribution network arrangement | 28 | ||
| Technical condition of water distribution system | 29 | ||
| Network cleaning/flushing | 29 | ||
| Chapter 4:\rRegulatory background | 31 | ||
| 4.1 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) GUIDELINES | 31 | ||
| 4.2 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY\r | 32 | ||
| Directive 98/83/EC | 32 | ||
| Directive 75/440/EEC | 33 | ||
| 4.3 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA | 34 | ||
| 4.4 OTHER COUNTRIES | 34 | ||
| Chapter 5:\rHealth perspectives | 36 | ||
| 5.1 MANGANESE\r | 36 | ||
| Manganese as an essential nutrient | 36 | ||
| Manganese toxicity | 37 | ||
| 5.2 IRON\r | 39 | ||
| Iron as an essential nutrient | 39 | ||
| Iron toxicity | 40 | ||
| Chapter 6:\rAesthetic issues | 42 | ||
| 6.1 ACCEPTABILITY OF DRINKING WATER | 42 | ||
| 6.2 COLOUR | 42 | ||
| Red water phenomenon | 44 | ||
| Black water phenomenon | 45 | ||
| 6.3 TASTE | 45 | ||
| 6.4 ODOUR | 46 | ||
| Chapter 7:\rSampling and monitoring | 48 | ||
| 7.1 ROLE OF SAMPLING AND MONITORING | 48 | ||
| 7.2 DESIGN OF SAMPLING PROGRAMMES | 49 | ||
| 7.3 RAW WATER SAMPLING | 49 | ||
| Surface waters | 50 | ||
| Groundwaters | 51 | ||
| Sampling frequency | 52 | ||
| 7.4 SAMPLING AT WATER TREATMENT WORKS | 52 | ||
| 7.5 SAMPLING METALS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS | 53 | ||
| Sampling locations | 53 | ||
| 7.6 SAMPLING AND MONITORING AT CONSUMERS’ TAPS | 54 | ||
| Sampling protocols | 54 | ||
| Sampling frequencies in compliance monitoring | 55 | ||
| Special investigations at individual properties | 56 | ||
| Chapter 8:\rAnalytical methods | 58 | ||
| 8.1 METHOD SELECTION | 58 | ||
| 8.2 COLORIMETRIC METHODS | 59 | ||
| 8.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS | 60 | ||
| 8.4 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY | 60 | ||
| 8.5 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA SPECTROMETRY\r | 62 | ||
| Optical Emission ICP-OES | 62 | ||
| Mass Spectrometry ICP-MS | 62 | ||
| 8.6 SPECIATION ANALYSIS | 63 | ||
| Iron | 63 | ||
| Manganese | 64 | ||
| Chapter 9:\rInvestigational methods | 66 | ||
| 9.1 DIRECT CORROSION TESTING | 66 | ||
| Corrosion scale and metal surface evaluation | 67 | ||
| Pipe rig systems | 67 | ||
| Metal coupons | 68 | ||
| Immersion tests | 69 | ||
| Electrochemical measurements | 70 | ||
| 9.2 CORROSIVE PROPERTIES OF WATER -\rSTABILITY INDICES | 70 | ||
| Langelier saturation index (LSI) | 71 | ||
| Ryznar index (RSI) | 71 | ||
| Larson-Skold index (LR) | 72 | ||
| 9.3 CONSUMER COMPLAINT LOGS | 73 | ||
| 9.4 OTHER TECHNIQUES | 73 | ||
| Chapter 10:\rCorrective water treatment and other engineering methods | 75 | ||
| 10.1 REASONS FOR CORRECTIVE TREATMENT | 75 | ||
| 10.2 MECHANISM OF IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL FROM WATER | 75 | ||
| 10.3 TECHNOLOGY OF IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL FROM WATER\r | 78 | ||
| Methods for iron and manganese oxidation | 78 | ||
| Aeration and chemical oxidation | 78 | ||
| Microbiological oxidation | 81 | ||
| Iron and manganese removal from groundwater | 82 | ||
| Pressure filtration | 82 | ||
| Processes using rapid gravity filtration | 86 | ||
| Microbiological filtration | 87 | ||
| Sequestration | 87 | ||
| Other methods | 89 | ||
| Iron and manganese removal from groundwater in the aquifer | 89 | ||
| Chapter 11:\rEconomics of iron and manganese control | 93 | ||
| 11.1 MAIN ISSUES | 93 | ||
| 11.2 COST OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT FOR IRON AND/OR MANGANESE REMOVAL - NEW PLANT\r | 93 | ||
| Large size water treatment plants | 93 | ||
| New plants | 93 | ||
| Mid-size water treatment plants | 94 | ||
| High alkalinity water | 94 | ||
| Low alkalinity water | 95 | ||
| Low capacity systems | 96 | ||
| 11.3 COST OF RETROFITTING WATER TREATMENT PLANT FOR IRON AND/OR MANGANESE REMOVAL | 96 | ||
| 11.4 NON-COMMUNITY FACILITIES FOR IRON REMOVAL | 96 | ||
| 11.5 PIPE REPLACEMENT COSTS\r | 97 | ||
| Houses | 97 | ||
| Water mains replacement and rehabilitation | 97 | ||
| 11.6 PIPE REHABILITATION STRATEGIES | 99 | ||
| Chapter 12:\rDeveloping a strategy | 101 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 101 | ||
| 12.2 RISK ASSESSMENT | 102 | ||
| 12.3 COMPONENTS OF A HOLISTIC STRATEGY\r | 102 | ||
| Affordability | 102 | ||
| Priorities | 103 | ||
| Engineering standards | 103 | ||
| Monitoring | 103 | ||
| Stakeholders and transparency | 103 | ||
| Operational targets and regulatory standards | 103 | ||
| Levels of service | 103 | ||
| Management principles | 104 | ||
| Appendix 1:\rCase studies | 105 | ||
| A1.1 BOGUCIN (PL) - IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL FROM A HIGH ALKALINITY WATER, IN THE PRESENCE OF ARSENIC\r | 105 | ||
| Drinking water supplier | 105 | ||
| Source and quality of raw water | 105 | ||
| Problem | 105 | ||
| Solution | 105 | ||
| Conclusions | 106 | ||
| REFERENCE | 107 | ||
| A1.2 SlUPSK (PL) - IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL FROM A LOW ALKALINITY WATER\r | 107 | ||
| Drinking water supplier | 107 | ||
| Source and quality of raw water | 107 | ||
| Problem | 107 | ||
| Solution | 108 | ||
| Conclusions | 108 | ||
| REFERENCE | 109 | ||
| A1.3 ZIELONA GÓRA (PL) - DETERIORATION OF WATER QUALITY IN TIME\r | 109 | ||
| Drinking water supplier | 109 | ||
| Source and quality of raw water | 109 | ||
| Problem | 110 | ||
| Solution | 111 | ||
| Conclusions | 111 | ||
| REFERENCES | 111 | ||
| A1.4 SCHROGENDORF (A) – SUBTERRANEAN REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE\r | 112 | ||
| Drinking water supplier | 112 | ||
| Source and quality of raw water | 112 | ||
| Problem | 113 | ||
| Solution | 113 | ||
| Conclusions | 113 | ||
| REFERENCES | 113 | ||
| References | 114 |