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Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge

BOOK

Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge

Christian Kazner | Thomas Wintgens | Peter Dillon

(2012)

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Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78040-064-8
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
455
Subjects
The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

Part of Groundwater Set - Buy all six books and save over 30% on buying separately!  
Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge has been developed from the RECLAIM WATER project supported by the European Commission under Thematic Priority 'Global Change and Ecosystems' of the Sixth Framework Programme. Its strategic objective is to develop hazard mitigation technologies for water reclamation providing safe and cost effective routes for managed aquifer recharge. 
Different treatment applications in terms of behaviour of key microbial and chemical contaminants are assessed. Engineered as well as natural treatment trains are investigated to provide guidance for sustainable MAR schemes using alternative sources such as effluent and stormwater. The technologies considered are also well suited to the needs of developing countries, which have a growing need of supplementation of freshwater resources. A broad range of international full-scale case studies enables insights into long-term system behaviour, operational aspects, and fate of a comprehensive number of compounds and contaminants, especially organic micropollutants and bulk organics. 
Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge depicts advances in water reclamation technologies and aims to provide new process combinations to treat alternative water sources to appropriate water quality levels for sustainable aquifer recharge. 
Editors: Christian Kazner, RWTH Aachen University, Germany, Thomas Wintgens, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Peter Dillon, CSIRO, Australia 

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover page 1
Half title page 2
Title page 4
Copyright page 5
Contents 6
List of contributors 16
Acknowledgements 20
Foreword - Dr. Panagiotis Balabanis 22
Foreword - Dr. Valentina Lazarova 24
Chapter 1 26
Introduction 26
1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE 26
1.2 RESEARCH IN MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE 27
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS BOOK 28
1.4 CHAPTER CONTENTS 29
REFERENCES 30
Part A 34
International MAR Case Studies 34
Chapter 2 36
Water reclamation for aquifer recharge at the eight case study sites: a cross case analysis 36
2.1 INTRODUCTION 36
2.2 METHODOLOGY 39
2.3 RESULTS 40
2.3.1 Basic wastewater parameters 40
2.3.2 Microbiological parameters 46
2.3.3 Trace elements 49
2.3.4 Salinity 49
2.4 CONCLUSIONS 51
REFERENCES 54
Chapter 3 58
Indirect potable reuse via managed aquifer recharge in the Torreele/St-André project 58
3.1 INTRODUCTION 58
3.1.1 Water management situation 58
3.1.2 History of implementation 59
3.1.3 Treatment and implementation concept 59
3.1.4 Authorisation procedure 59
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 60
3.2.1 Waste water treatment plant Wulpen 60
3.2.2 Advanced water treatment plant Torreele 61
3.2.3 Groundwater infiltration at St. André 62
3.2.4 Groundwater extraction and treatment facility at St. André 63
3.2.5 Hydrogeology 64
3.3 TREATMENT TARGETS AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 64
3.3.1 Regulated substances 64
3.3.2 Unregulated substances 65
3.4 WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 66
3.4.1 Regular Monitoring Program 66
3.4.2 Measuring program of RECLAIM WATER 66
3.4.3 Results 67
3.4.4 Technology performance and contaminant monitoring 68
3.4.5 Concentrate disposal 69
3.5 CONCLUSIONS 69
REFERENCES 69
Chapter 4 72
Managed aquifer recharge of a karstic aquifer in Nardó, Italy 72
4.1 INTRODUCTION 72
4.1.1 Historical background 72
4.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 72
4.1.3 Authorisation procedure 74
4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 76
4.2.1 Study area 76
4.2.2 Hydrogeology 77
4.2.3 Process design and operation 77
4.2.4 Clogging 78
4.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 80
4.3.1 Wastewater chemical-physical parameters 80
4.3.2 Microbiological parameters 83
4.3.3 Salinity related parameters 87
4.3.4 Water quality changes during MAR 89
4.4 OPERATIONAL FEEDBACK 89
4.5 CONCLUSION 90
REFERENCES 90
Chapter 5 92
Managed aquifer recharge via river bed in Sabadell, Spain 92
5.1 INTRODUCTION 92
5.1.1 Historical background 92
5.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 95
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 96
5.2.1 Study area 96
5.2.2 Ripoll River WWTP 96
5.2.3 Ripoll River recharge and reuse scheme 96
5.2.4 Hydrogeology 97
5.2.5 Process design and operation 99
5.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 100
5.3.1 Basic wastewater parameters 100
5.3.2 Nutrients 102
5.3.3 Microbiological parameters 102
5.3.4 Salinity related parameters 105
5.3.5 Trace elements analysis 105
5.3.6 Redox conditions 106
5.4 OPERATIONAL FEEDBACK 106
5.5 CONCLUSION 107
REFERENCES 107
Chapter 6 108
Managed aquifer recharge for agricultural reuse in Shafdan, Israel 108
6.1 INTRODUCTION 108
6.1.1 Water management situation 108
6.1.2 Historical background 108
6.1.3 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 111
6.1.4 Authorisation procedure 112
6.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 112
6.2.1 Existing full-scale system 113
6.2.2 Pilot-scale UF short SAT system 114
6.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 119
6.3.1 Nutrients and bulk organics 119
6.3.2 Dissolved oxygen, iron and manganese 120
6.3.3 Microbiological contaminants 122
6.3.4 Summary removal capacity UF-short SAT 123
6.3.5 Summary removal capacity conventional SAT 125
6.4 CONCLUSION 126
6.4.1 Operational results from short SAT 126
6.4.2 Removal capacity of short SAT 126
6.4.3 Outlook 126
REFERENCES 127
Chapter 7 128
The aquifer storage, transfer and recovery project in Salisbury, South Australia 128
7.1 INTRODUCTION 128
7.1.1 Historical background 128
7.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 128
7.1.3 Authorisation procedure 129
7.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 129
7.2.1 Study area 129
7.2.2 Hydrogeology 130
7.2.3 Process design and operation 132
7.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 134
7.3.1 Rainfall, stormwater capture and reuse 134
7.3.2 ASTR well-field aquifer conditioning 135
7.3.3 ASTR well field, first injection phase 138
7.3.4 Water quality assessment based on protocol 1 138
7.4 OPERATIONAL FEEDBACK 141
7.5 CONCLUSION 143
REFERENCES 144
Chapter 8 146
Managed aquifer recharge for potable reuse in Atlantis, South Africa 146
8.1 INTRODUCTION 146
8.1.1 Historical background 146
8.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 147
8.1.3 Authorisation procedure 147
8.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 147
8.2.1 Study area 147
8.2.2 Hydrogeology 147
8.2.3 Process design and operation 149
8.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 151
8.3.1 Dissolved organic carbon 154
8.3.2 Electrical conductivity 155
8.3.3 Sulphate 156
8.3.4 Potassium and calcium 156
8.3.5 Boron 157
8.3.6 Redox conditions 158
8.3.7 Microbiological parameters 159
8.3.8 Organic micropollutants 160
8.3.9 Summary of water quality monitoring 161
8.3.10 Operational feedback 164
8.4 CONCLUSIONS 164
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 164
REFERENCES 165
Chapter 9 166
Unplanned aquifer recharge in El Mezquital/Tula Valley, Mexico 166
9.1 INTRODUCTION 166
9.1.1 Water management situation 166
9.1.2 History of the development of the site 168
9.1.3 Technical set-up and operational experiences 168
9.1.4 Analytical methodology 170
9.2 WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT 173
9.2.1 Irrigation water in the Tula Valley 173
9.2.2 Supply water 175
9.2.3 Soil and soil column analysis 179
9.3 CONCLUSIONS 181
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 181
REFERENCES 181
Chapter 10 184
Managed aquifer recharge by enhanced direct injection-well recharge in Gaobeidian/Beijing, China 184
10.1 INTRODUCTION 184
10.1.1 Historical background 184
10.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water 186
10.1.3 Legal framework and authorisation procedure 186
10.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SITE 186
10.2.1 Study area 186
10.2.2 Process design and operation 187
10.3 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE AND CONTAMINANT MONITORING 189
10.3.1 Water quality 189
10.3.2 Operational feedback 192
10.4 CONCLUSION 192
REFERENCES 193
Part B 194
Water Quality Analysis in MAR – Methods and Results 194
Chapter 11 196
Water quality analysis – microbiological hazards 196
11.1 INTRODUCTION 196
11.1.1 Overview on selected water quality parameters, relevance 197
11.1.2 Detection and quantification methods 200
11.2 CASE STUDIES 204
11.2.1 Belgium (Wulpen/Torreele) 204
11.2.2 Italy (Nardò) 205
11.2.3 Spain (Sabadell) 208
11.2.4 Coherence of pathogen and indicator presence 210
11.2.5 Results of pathogen decay studies 211
11.3 CONCLUSIONS 213
11.3.1 Pathogen contamination numbers 213
11.3.2 Treatment performances of MAR processes 214
11.3.3 Pathogens and indicators relationships 215
11.3.4 ARG in reclaim water sites 215
11.3.5 In situ pathogen decay rate 215
REFERENCES 216
Chapter 12 222
Water quality analysis: Detection, fate, and behaviour, of selected trace organic pollutants at managed aquifer recharge sites 222
12.1 INTRODUCTION 222
12.2 METHODS 224
12.2.1 Sampling, storage and processing at the demonstration sites 224
12.2.2 Method 1: antibiotics, neutral drugs, and other micropollutants 225
12.2.3 Method 2: acidic drugs and ICM 226
12.2.4 Method 3: estrogens 227
12.2.5 Method 4: nitrosamines 227
12.2.6 Method 5: AOI 228
12.2.7 Quality assurance 228
12.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 228
12.3.1 Nardo 233
12.3.2 Sabadell 235
12.3.3 Shafdan 237
12.3.4 Gaobeidian 240
12.3.5 Wulpen/Torrele 242
12.4 CROSS SITE ANALYSIS 244
12.5 CONCLUSIONS 248
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 248
REFERENCES 249
Chapter 13 252
Water quality analysis – bulk organic compounds 252
13.1 OVERVIEW OF SELECTED WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS 252
13.2 SAMPLING, STORAGE AND PROCESSING 253
13.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS 253
13.4 SELECTED RESULTS FROM LABORATORY AND CASE STUDIES 254
13.4.1 Laboratory studies 255
13.4.2 Case studies 257
13.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 260
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 260
REFERENCES 260
Part C 262
Water Reclamation Technologies in MAR 262
Chapter 14 264
Treatment trains utilising natural and hybrid processes 264
14.1 NATURAL SYSTEMS FOR WATER RECLAMATION 264
14.2 OVERVIEW AND METHODS OF NATURAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS RELATED STUDIES UNDER RECLAIM WATER 265
14.3 PERFORMANCE OF TREATMENT TRAINS 267
14.3.1 Bulk organics removal 267
14.3.2 Nutrient removal 272
14.3.3 Organic micropollutant removal 273
14.3.4 Pathogen removal 275
14.3.5 Soil clogging potential 277
14.4 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS 278
14.4.1 Soil aquifer treatment 278
14.4.2 Constructed wetlands 279
14.5 ECONOMIC ASPECTS 280
14.5.1 Soil aquifer treatment 280
14.5.2 Constructed wetlands 280
14.6 CONCLUSIONS 281
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 281
REFERENCES 281
Chapter 15 284
Membrane based treatment trains for managed aquifer recharge 284
15.1 MEMBRANES IN WATER RECLAMATION 284
15.2 OVERVIEW AND METHODS OF MEMBRANE TREATMENT RELATED STUDIES UNDER RECLAIM WATER 285
15.2.1 Emerging membrane based treatment trains 287
15.2.2 Membrane studies under Reclaim Water 287
15.3 PERFORMANCE OF TREATMENT TRAINS 290
15.3.1 Dual membrane treatment by UF/RO 290
15.3.2 Direct NF treatment 291
15.3.3 PAC/NF treatment 292
15.3.4 GAC/NF treatment 295
15.3.5 NF/GAC treatment 296
15.3.6 MBR/NF treatment 297
15.4 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE 299
15.4.1 Dual membrane treatment 299
15.4.2 PAC/NF treatment 299
15.4.3 Direct NF 300
15.4.4 NF/GAC treatment 300
15.4.5 GAC/NF treatment 300
15.4.6 MBR/NF treatment 301
15.5 ECONOMIC ASPECTS 301
15.5.1 Dual membrane treatment 301
15.5.2 NF-AC hybrid systems 301
15.5.3 MBR/NF treatment 301
15.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 302
15.6.1 Removal rates 302
15.6.2 Comparison with other alternative processes 303
15.6.3 Treatment of NF concentrate 303
15.6.4 Operational aspects 303
15.6.5 Conclusion 304
ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE 304
REFERENCES 305
Chapter 16 308
Treatment of reject streams from dense membrane processes 308
16.1 TREATMENT OF RO CONCENTRATE 308
16.2 CAPACITIVE DEIONISATION (CDI) 309
16.2.1 Concept 309
16.2.2 Plant set-up 309
16.2.3 Analytical methods 310
16.2.4 Water quality 310
16.2.5 Operational issues 311
16.2.6 Cost estimation 312
16.2.7 Conclusions 312
16.3 OZONATION 313
16.3.1 Removal of emerging pollutants 313
16.3.2 Increase of biodegradability by ozonation 313
16.3.3 Bromate formation 313
16.3.4 Toxicity of RO concentrate 314
16.3.5 Oxidation product formation 314
16.4 GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON WITH MICROFILTRATION (BIO MAC) 314
16.4.1 Plant set-up 315
16.4.2 Removal capacity 315
16.4.3 Operational regime and conclusions 319
16.5 SUBSURFACE FLOW REED BED 319
16.5.1 Plant set-up 319
16.5.2 Removal capacity 320
16.6 CONCLUSIONS 320
REFERENCES 320
Part D 322
Design and Management of MAR Systems 322
Chapter 17 324
General design considerations 324
17.1 INTRODUCTION 324
17.2 IDENTIFYING PROJECT OBJECTIVES – WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS? 324
17.2.1 Options for storage increase 325
17.2.2 Options for water quality improvement 326
17.2.3 Options for sustaining groundwater levels and dependent ecosystems 326
17.2.4 Whole catchment and groundwater system context 326
17.3 STEPS IN ESTABLISHING A MAR PROJECT 327
17.3.1 Viability assessment 327
17.3.2 Degree of difficulty assessment 330
17.3.3 Investigations and risk assessment 331
17.4 SITE SELECTION AND AQUIFER CHARACTERISATION 332
17.5 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 332
17.6 MONITORING 332
17.7 CONCLUSIONS 333
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 333
REFERENCES 334
Chapter 18 336
Use of groundwater models for prediction and optimisation of the behaviour of MAR sites 336
18.1 GROUNDWATER MODELLING AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE: WHAT MODEL FOR WHAT PROBLEM 336
18.1.1 Models as tool to design and operate a MAR system in a given legal context 336
18.1.2 Model data requirements and hydrogeological characterisation 341
18.1.3 Groundwater modelling and artificial recharge: Model selection 345
18.2 CASE STUDIES 346
18.2.1 Case study 1: Shafdan 346
18.2.2 Case study 2: Adelaide 353
18.2.3 Case study 3: Nardò 358
18.2.4 Case study 4: Wulpen 364
18.3 MODELLING OF MAR SYSTEM: LEARNING FROM THE RECLAIM WATER CASE STUDIES 367
REFERENCES 369
Chapter 19 376
Risk assessment and risk management in Managed Aquifer Recharge 376
19.1 METHODOLOGIES FOR RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 376
19.1.1 European Union 376
19.1.2 Australia 378
19.2 CHEMICAL RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY 380
19.3 CHEMICAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF THE CASE STUDY SITES 381
19.3.1 Source waters 381
19.3.2 Recovered waters 385
19.4 QUANTITATIVE MICROBIAL RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY 389
19.5 QMRA OF THE CASE STUDIES 389
19.5.1 Aquifer barrier treatment characterisation 390
19.5.2 Case study sites human health risk assessment 393
19.5.3 Valuing the aquifer barrier in MAR schemes 394
19.5.4 Integrating aquifer treatment with engineered treatments 396
19.6 CONCLUSIONS 396
REFERENCES 397
Chapter 20 400
Risk perception and communication for managed aquifer recharge 400
20.1 INTRODUCTION 400
20.2 REASONS FOR AND OBJECTIVES OF RISK COMMUNICATION 400
20.3 PRINCIPLES OF RISK COMMUNICATION 402
20.3.1 Building and keeping trust 402
20.3.2 Framing and managing communication 403
20.3.3 Some comments on bias and transparency 403
20.4 COMMUNICATING RISK 403
20.5 RECONCILING CONFLICTING VIEWS 404
20.5.1 Objections over hazard risk 404
20.5.2 Objections over outrage factors 407
20.6 CONCLUSIONS 407
REFERENCES 407
Chapter 21 408
Decision support for MAR planning in the context of Integrated Water Resources Management: The Gabardine DSS 408
21.1 MAR AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 408
21.2 DECISION SUPPORT FOR MAR PLANNING 409
21.3 THE GABARDINE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM 411
21.3.1 MAR planning process 411
21.3.2 DSS structure and GUI 413
21.3.3 Spatial database and GIS platform 414
21.3.4 The G-DSS planning module 415
21.4 G-DSS APPLICATIONS 418
21.4.1 The Querença-Silves case study, Portugal 418
21.4.2 The Gaza-Strip case study, Palestine 423
21.5 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 428
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 429
REFERENCES 429
Part E 434
Promoting MAR Systems for Water Recycling 434
Chapter 22 436
Managed Aquifer Recharge as a component ofsustainable water strategies – a brief guidancefor EU policies 436
22.1 INTRODUCTION 436
22.1.1 Water reuse as a water stress mitigation option 436
22.1.2 Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) 437
22.2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK 438
22.2.1 European legislation relevant to Managed Aquifer Recharge 439
22.2.2 Aquifer recharge specific regulations and guidelines 443
22.3 RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 447
22.3.1 Microbial risks 447
22.3.2 Chemical risks – new substances of concern 448
22.4 TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS 449
22.5 RECOMMENDATIONS ON SCHEME AUTHORISATION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 450
22.5.1 Which investigations shall be carried out during MAR planning? 450
22.5.2 What can be controlled and how? 451
22.5.3 What role will MAR with reclaimed water play in the future? 451
22.5.4 What should be done to promote the strategic adoption of MAR with reclaimed water as a water stress mitigation option? 451
REFERENCES 452

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