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Disinfection By-Products and Human Health

BOOK

Disinfection By-Products and Human Health

Steve E. Hrudey | Jeffrey W. A. Charrois

(2012)

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Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78040-062-4
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
326
Subjects
The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

Disinfection By-Products and Human Health is based on contributions from speakers who participated in May 2011 workshops on Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) and Human Health at Ozwater 11 in Adelaide, Australia or at an AWA sponsored workshop at the Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Perth, Australia. The contributions are prepared to facilitate communication with practitioners, rather than researchers, making use of overview illustrations rather than dense text or data tables. Each chapter concludes with up to 5 key findings that are take-home messages for practitioners. 
Disinfection By-Products and Human Health is aimed specifically at drinking water professionals (engineers, chemists and public health professionals) working on the front lines of drinking water issues where they must encounter actual day-to-day issues of risk management concerning DBPs in relation to all the other regulatory and water quality issues they must manage. Although a topic this complex is certainly not amenable to simplistic explanations, this book aims to provide drinking water professionals with a pragmatic assessment of the current evidence and emerging issues concerning DBPs and public health. Disinfection By-Products and Human Health is an essential, practical and accessible guide for drinking water professionals, engineers, chemists and public health professionals. 
Editors: Steve E. Hrudey, Professor Emeritus, Analytical & Environmental Toxicology, University of Alberta, Canada, Jeffrey W.A. Charrois, Director and Associate Professor, Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, Australia, Steve Hrudey is professor emeritus in analytical and environmental toxicology in the University of Alberta's Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry. He spent 13 years as a cabinet-appointed member of the Alberta Environmental Appeals Board, the last four as chair, and was the first non-lawyer to hold this position. During this period, he served on 36 public hearing panels, 19 as chair of the panel. In addition he has testified before senate committees in Canada and the Legislative Council in Western Australia. Hrudey has served on a number of high-profile expert panels, including the Research Advisory Panel to the Walkerton Inquiry (2000-2002), the Expert Panel on Safe Drinking Water for First Nations (2006), the Technical Advisory Committee to the B.C. Minister of Health on turbidity and microbial risk in drinking water (2007-2008, as chair), the Expert Advisory Panel on Water Quality for Washington, D.C., to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2009-2011) and chair of the Royal Society of Canada Expert Panel on Environmental and Health Impacts of Canada's Oil Sands Industry (2009-2010). He has also co-authored or edited nine books, including the widely acclaimed book inspired by the Walkerton tragedy: Safe Drinking Water - Lessons from Recent Outbreaks in Affluent Nations (IWA Publishing, 2004). He has written 26 book chapters, 19 expert panel reports, 163 refereed journal articles, 15 science discussions, six media op-eds and 73 conference proceeding papers. Hrudey is the 2012 winner of the American Water Works Association A.P. Black Research Award for contributions to water science and water supply. 
This book is sponsored by Australian Water Association (AWA) 

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover page 1
Half title page 2
Title page 3
Copyright page 4
Contents 5
About the Editors 13
Acknowledgements 15
List of Abbreviations 16
Preface 19
Foreword 21
Chapter 1 25
Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) as a public health issue 25
1.1 DBPs AND THE CHLOROFORM SAGA 25
1.2 DAWN OF A NEW MILLENNIUM 28
1.2.1 Consequences of a disinfection failure 28
1.2.2 New horizons: Emerging DBPs and alternative disinfectants 29
1.3 BALANCING MICROBIAL AND DBP HEALTH RISK 30
1.4 PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 31
REFERENCES 32
Chapter 2 35
Research overview, regulatory history and current worldwide status of DBP regulations and guidelines 35
2.1 DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT RESEARCH 35
2.1.1 Discovery of DBPs 35
2.1.2 DBP formation mechanisms 42
2.1.2.1 Organic precursors of DBPs 42
2.1.2.2 Inorganic precursors of DBPs 44
2.1.2.3 Disinfectants 44
2.1.2.4 Kinetics of DBP formation 46
2.1.3 Fate of DBPs in drinking water distribution system 46
2.1.4 Evaluation of DBP exposure 47
2.1.5 Toxicological assessments of DBPs 48
2.1.6 Epidemiological studies of DBPs 49
2.2 REGULATORY HISTORY 50
2.2.1 Regulations and guidelines for THMs 50
2.2.2 Regulatory guidelines for HAAs 52
2.2.3 Regulations and guidelines considerations for emerging DBPs 53
2.3 CURRENT STATUS OF DBP REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES 54
2.4 CONCLUSIONS 56
REFERENCES 58
Chapter 3 64
Managing DBPs under challenging conditions – a utility water quality manager’s perspective 64
3.1 INTRODUCTION 64
3.2 PATHOGENS, CHLORINE, AND DBPS 65
3.3 UTILITY-WIDE RISK ASSESSMENT 66
3.4 THE CHALLENGE OF DBP MANAGEMENT 67
3.4.1 Know your system 67
3.4.2 Source water 67
3.4.3 Chlorination 68
3.4.4 Temperature and pH effects 70
3.4.5 Management opportunities 70
3.4.6 Management interventions 72
3.4.6.1 Water age 72
3.4.6.2 pH control 73
3.4.6.3 Water temperature 73
3.4.6.4 Aeration 73
3.4.6.5 Limitations of aeration 74
3.5 TREATMENT FOR ORGANICS REMOVAL 74
3.5.1 Treatment case study 1 75
3.5.2 Treatment case study 2 75
3.6 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS 76
3.7 WATER SAFETY PLANS - BRINGING IT TOGETHER 77
3.8 CONCLUSIONS 79
REFERENCES 80
Chapter 4 82
Halogenated DBPs and emerging issues 82
4.1 INTRODUCTION 82
4.1.1 Overview of formation of DBPs 83
4.2 FORMATION OF IODINE-CONTAINING DBPS 83
4.2.1 Chemistry of formation 83
4.2.2 Formation of TOI 83
4.2.3 Formation of iodine-containing THMs 84
4.2.4 Formation of iodine-containing acids 85
4.3 FORMATION OF EMERGING CHLORINEAND BROMINE-CONTAINING DBPS 86
4.3.1 Formation of TOCl and TOBr 86
4.3.2 Haloacetaldehydes 86
4.3.3 Halogenated furanones 90
4.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 91
REFERENCES 92
Chapter 5 95
Nitrogenous DBPs, formation, control and new frontiers 95
5.1 INTRODUCTION 95
5.2 THEME 1: ALL DISINFECTION SCHEMES FORM DBPs 96
5.3 THEME 2: DISINFECTANT COMBINATIONS MUST BALANCE TRADEOFFS IN DBP FORMATION 97
5.4 THEME 3: KNOWLEDGE OF DBP FORMATION PATHWAYS PERMITS DESIGN OF INEXPENSIVE MODIFICATIONS TO REDUCE DBP FORMATION 98
5.5 THEME 4: DBPs YET TO BE DISCOVERED SHOULD BE PURSUED IN A RATIONAL MANNER 99
5.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 101
REFERENCES 102
Chapter 6 104
Nitrogenous DBPs in drinking water: toxicity, regulation, analysis, occurrence and control 104
6.1 INTRODUCTION 104
6.2 N-NITROSAMINES 105
6.2.1 Background, toxicity, and regulatory status 105
6.2.2 Analysis 105
6.2.3 Formation and precursors 107
6.2.4 Treatment and control 111
6.3 HALONITRILES 113
6.3.1 Background, toxicity and regulatory status 113
6.3.2 Occurrence in drinking water 116
6.3.3 Analysis 116
6.3.4 Formation and precursors 117
6.3.5 Treatment and control 119
6.4 CYANOGEN HALIDES 120
6.4.1 Background, toxicity and regulatory status 120
6.4.2 Occurrence in drinking water 121
6.4.3 Analysis 121
6.4.4 Formation and precursors 122
6.4.5 Treatment and control 123
6.5 HALONITROALKANES 124
6.5.1 Background, toxicity and regulatory status 124
6.5.2 Occurrence in drinking water 125
6.5.3 Analysis 126
6.5.4 Formation and precursors 126
6.5.5 Treatment and control 127
6.6 HALOACETAMIDES 128
6.6.1 Background, toxicity and regulatory status 128
6.6.2 Occurrence, formation and removal in drinking water 129
6.6.3 Analysis 130
6.7 HALOAMINES 130
6.8 NON-HALOGENATED NITRILES 132
6.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 133
REFERENCES 134
Chapter 7 146
NDMA and other N-nitrosamines – health risk assessment and management 146
7.1 N-NITROSAMINES IN DRINKING WATER 146
7.2 GUIDELINES AND REGULATION OF N-NITROSAMINES IN DRINKING WATER 148
7.3 TOXICITY AND HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS 149
7.3.1 Mode of action 149
7.3.2 Human toxicity 150
7.3.2.1 Occupational exposure 150
7.3.2.2 Endogenous formation 150
7.3.2.3 Drinking water exposure 150
7.3.3 Rodent toxicity 150
7.4 NDMA EXPOSURE 151
7.4.1 Sources 151
7.4.2 Daily NDMA exposure estimates 151
7.4.3 Contributions to total NDMA exposure 152
7.5 ABILITY OF DRINKING WATER NDMA EXPOSURES TO EXPLAIN BLADDER CANCER 152
7.5.1 N-Nitrosamine-specific bladder cancer epidemiology 152
7.5.2 N-Nitrosamine risk assessment for drinking water 153
7.6 RISK MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE NDMA DURING DRINKING WATER TREATMENT 155
7.6.1 NDMA removal by treatment 155
7.6.1.1 UV photolysis 156
7.6.1.2 Advanced oxidation 158
7.6.1.3 Point of use/point of entry treatment systems (POU/POE) 158
7.6.2 Preventing NDMA formation 158
7.6.2.1 Precursor removal and oxidation 158
7.6.2.2 Chloramine chemistry 159
7.6.2.3 Polymers and ion exchange resins 159
7.7 CONCLUSIONS 159
REFERENCES 160
Chapter 8 166
Recent novel DBPs halogenated benzoquinones 166
8.1 INTRODUCTION 166
8.2 SAMPLING PROCEDURES 167
8.2.1 Water sample collection and storage 167
8.2.2 Sample de-chlorination and preservation 167
8.2.2.1 Effects of pH on HBQs 167
8.2.2.2 Stability of DCBQ in acidified water samples 169
8.3 SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION 169
8.4 ANALYTICAL METHOD 170
8.4.1 Liquid chromatography 170
8.4.2 Mass spectrometry 171
8.4.2.1 ESI-MS 171
8.4.2.2 Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) 174
8.4.3 LC-ESI-MS/MS method performance 176
8.4.3.1 HBQs confirmation 176
8.4.3.2 Quantification 176
8.4.4 SPE-LC-ESI-MS/MS (MRM) method performance 177
8.5 SURVEY OF WATER TREATMENT PLANTS 178
8.5.1 Sampling 178
8.5.2 Confirmation of HBQs as DBPs 178
8.5.3 HBQ occurrence 179
8.6 CONCLUSION 181
REFERENCES 181
Chapter 9 182
Mutagen X: The evolving story of an extremely potent mutagen, its toxicology and human health risk assessment 182
9.1 INTRODUCTION 182
9.1.1 General description 182
9.1.2 Occurrence worldwide 182
9.2 TOXICOLOGY 185
9.2.1 Mechanism or mode of action 186
9.2.2 Carcinogenicity 188
9.2.3 Toxicokinetics 190
9.2.4 Quantitative structure-activity relationships 190
9.3 RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY FOR GENOTOXIC CARCINOGENS 191
9.3.1 Low dose extrapolation methodology 191
9.3.2 Available risk assessments 193
9.4 CONCLUSIONS 194
REFERENCES 196
Chapter 10 200
Toxicological evaluation of experimental data that informs the magnitude of cancer risk from disinfection by-products 200
10.1 INTRODUCTION 200
10.2 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF A TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION 201
10.3 OVERVIEW OF THE WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE THAT DBPs ARE A CANCER RISK 204
10.4 EVALUATION OF RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THMs 204
10.4.1 Toxicological data 204
10.4.2 Risk estimates based upon epidemiological data 207
10.4.3 Risk based upon toxicological data 208
10.4.4 Uncharacterized chlorination by-products 213
10.4.5 Evaluation of recent data on enzyme variants that metabolize DBPs 216
10.5 A BROADER VIEW OF SOURCES OF CANCER RISK 222
10.6 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 224
10.6.1 Impact of misidentifying causal linkages 224
10.6.2 Regulations 225
10.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 226
REFERENCES 227
Chapter 11 234
Epidemiological inference and evidence on DBPs and human health 234
11.1 TAXONOMY OF HEALTH RISK EVIDENCE 234
11.1.1 Evidence and uncertainty of health effects 235
11.1.2 Inference and uncertainty 237
11.1.3 Epidemiology 237
11.1.4 Predictive inference (toxicological risk assessment) 238
11.1.5 Translation of inference into policy 238
11.2 EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS AND EVIDENCE 238
11.2.1 Epidemiologic inference 239
11.2.1.1 Correlation of outcome with exposure 239
11.2.1.2 Confounding 240
11.2.1.3 Bias 240
11.2.1.4 Validity and reliability 241
11.2.1.5 Study design for causation 241
11.2.2 Epidemiologic methods 242
11.2.2.1 Observational desciptive studies 242
11.2.2.2 Observational analytical studies 243
11.2.2.3 Experimental studies 245
11.2.3 Weighing epidemiologic evidence for causation 245
11.2.3.1 Temporal relationship 246
11.2.3.2 Plausibility 246
11.2.3.3 Consistency 247
11.2.3.4 Dose-response relationship 247
11.2.3.5 Strength of the association 247
11.2.3.6 Reversibility 249
11.2.3.7 Study design 249
11.2.3.8 Judging the evidence 250
11.2.4 Assessing exposure 253
11.3 CHLORINATION DBPS AND CANCER 256
11.3.1 Epidemiology studies on cancer 256
11.3.1.1 Colon cancer 257
11.3.1.2 Rectal cancer 258
11.3.1.3 Urinary bladder cancer 259
11.3.2 Reviews of epidemiology on bladder cancer 263
11.3.3 Critical analysis of epidemiology on bladder cancer 264
11.3.3.1 Evidence of early markers of bladder cancer 266
11.3.3.2 Inconsistencies regarding smoking interaction 266
11.3.3.3 Inconsistencies regarding female vs. male bladder cancer risk 267
11.3.3.4 Fluid consumption and bladder cancer risk 267
11.3.3.5 Limited studies including urban areas free of chlorination DBPs 267
11.3.3.6 Absence of a plausible toxicological agent among known DBPs 269
11.4 ADVERSE REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES 271
11.4.1 Epidemiology evidence 271
11.4.1.1 Fetal growth and prematurity 272
11.4.1.2 Spontaneous abortion 274
11.4.1.3 Stillbirth 276
11.4.1.4 Congenital anomalies (birth defects) 277
11.5 INTERPRETATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH RISK 280
11.5.1 Recognizing uncertainty in epidemiology evidence 280
11.5.2 Exposure assessment issues 280
11.5.3 Protecting the public’s health and dealing with media 282
11.5.3.1 DBPs and cancer 283
11.5.3.2 DBPs and adverse reproductive outcomes 283
11.5.4 Short term exposure and degree of caution 287
11.5.5 Comparing predictions with experience 288
11.6 CONCLUSIONS 290
REFERENCES 292
Chapter 12 304
Concluding thoughts on DBPs, water quality and public health risks 304
12.1 PROGRESS UNDERSTANDING DBPs SINCE 1974 304
12.2 IDENTIFYING AND REGULATING DBPs 306
12.3 AWATER UTILITY COPING WITH DBPs 307
12.4 COMPLEXITY OF HALOGENATED DBPs 308
12.5 COMPLEXITY OF NITROGENOUS DBPs 308
12.6 NITROGENOUS DBPs – A PRIMER 309
12.7 NITROSAMINES – AN OBVIOUS CANCER RISK? 309
12.8 CHALLENGE OF CHARACTERIZING NEW DBPs 311
12.9 CANCER RISK OF A POTENT MUTAGEN - MX? 311
12.10 CANCER RISK - EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE 312
12.11 HEALTH RISK - EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVIDENCE 313
12.12 DBPs AND HEALTH - WHERE ARE WE NOW? 315
REFERENCES 317
Index 320

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