Microbial Growth in Drinking Water Supplies

Dick van der Kooij; Paul W. J. J. van der Wielen; Diego Rosso; Andrew Shaw; Dietrich Borchardt; Ralf Ibisch; Dirk Apgar; Jay Witherspoon; Dominic M. di Toro; Paul R. Paquin; Don Mavinic; Fred Koch; Emmanuelle Guillot; Jean-Francois Loret; Erhard Hoffmann; Hallvard Ødegaard; Francesc Hernandez-Sancho; Maria Molinos-Senante

BOOK

Microbial Growth in Drinking Water Supplies

(2013)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-041-9
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 484
Subjects: The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

Maintaining the microbial quality in distribution systems and connected installations remains a challenge for the water supply companies all over the world, despite many years of research. This book identifies the main concerns and knowledge gaps related to regrowth and stimulates cooperation in future research. Microbial Growth in Drinking Water Supplies provides an overview of the regrowth issue in different countries and the water quality problems related to regrowth. The book assesses the causes of regrowth in drinking water and the prevention of regrowth by water treatment and distribution.
Editors: Dirk van der Kooij and Paul W.J.J. van der Wielen, KWR Watercycle Research Institute, The Netherlands

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover\r	Cover
Contents	v
Authors and co-authors	xvii
Acknowledgements	xxv
Foreword	xxvii
Chapter 1:\rGeneral introduction	1
1.1 WATER-SUPPLY MICROBIOLOGY\r	1
1.1.1 Discoveries and impact	1
1.1.2 A century of progress	2
1.2 REGROWTH: PROBLEMS AND ASSESSMENT	5
1.2.1 Problems	5
1.2.2 Regrowth assessment	8
1.3 CAUSES OF REGROWTH	9
1.3.1 Growth kinetics and growth potential assessment	10
1.3.1.1 Growth kinetics	10
1.3.1.2 Assessment of the microbial-growth potential of drinking water	13
1.3.2 Temperature	14
1.3.3 Biofilms, sediments and hydraulics	15
1.3.3.1 Biofilms	15
1.3.3.2 Sediments	18
1.3.4 Construction materials	18
1.3.5 Disinfectant residual	19
1.4 SCOPE AND AIM	19
Acknowledgements	20
1.5 REFERENCES	20
Chapter 2: Measurement of biostability and impacts on water treatment in the US	33
2.1 INTRODUCTION	33
2.2 MEASUREMENT OF BIODEGRADABLE ORGANIC MATTER IN WATER	34
2.3 CONCENTRATIONS OF AOC AND BDOC IN US DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES	37
2.4 IMPACT OF WATER TREATMENT ON BOM	40
2.4.1 Watersheds	40
2.4.2 Disinfection	41
2.4.3 Coagulation and sedimentation	42
2.4.4 Granular media filtration	42
2.4.5 Membrane filtration	42
2.4.6 Bank infiltration	44
2.4.7 Recycling of backwash water	45
2.5 MATERIALS IN CONTACT WITH WATER	45
2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF A BIOLUMINESCENCE AOC METHOD\r	46
2.6.1 Bioluminescence AOC assay	46
2.6.2 Application of the bioluminescence AOC assay	48
2.6.3 Development of a salt water bioluminescence AOC test	50
2.7 CONCLUSIONS	51
2.8 REFERENCES	52
Chapter 3: Removal of organic matter in water treatment systems - Case studies in Japan\r	57
3.1 INTRODUCTION	57
3.2 ADVANCED WATER PURIFICATION SYSTEM IN OSAKAWATER WORKS\r	57
3.2.1 Reduction of chlorine dosage	57
3.2.2 Bacterial-regrowth control by AOC reduction and less chlorine dosage	58
3.3 ORGANIC REMOVALS IN A HYBRID MEMBRANE FILTRATION SYSTEM\r	61
3.3.1 PVDF MF membrane filtration coupled withpre-ozonation	61
3.3.2 PTFE MF membrane filtration coupled with powdered activated carbon adsorption and biological/chemical oxidation	65
3.3.3 Biofilm-membrane reactor for advanced drinking water treatment	69
3.4 CONCLUSION	71
3.5 REFERENCES	71
Chapter 4:\rOrganic matter, pipe materials, disinfectants and biofilms in distribution systems	73
4.1 INTRODUCTION	73
4.1.1 Organic matter and heterotrophic bacterial growth	74
4.1.2 Disinfectans, NOM and microbial growth	75
4.1.2.1 Primary disinfection	75
4.1.2.2 Secondary disinfection	77
4.1.3 Pipe materials	78
4.2 INTERACTIONS OF FACTORS AND BIOFILM GROWTH\r	79
4.2.1 Importance of organic carbon and chlorineon biofilms	79
4.2.2 Importance of iron-corrosion products	81
4.2.3 Iron, organics and disinfectants	81
4.2.4 Iron, organics, disinfectants and corrosion control	84
4.2.4.1 Corrosion products and iron oxide coated beads	84
4.2.4.2 Laboratory and pilot distribution system studies	85
4.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	88
4.4 REFERENCES	90
Chapter 5:\rSafe distribution without a disinfectant residual	95
5.1 INTRODUCTION\r	95
5.1.1 Safe distribution of water: to disinfect\ror not to disinfect?	95
5.1.2 The road to distribution without disinfectant residual in the Netherlands	98
5.1.3 Microbial safety in water legislation in the Netherlands	100
5.2 GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICE	100
5.3 EVIDENCE OF SAFE DISTRIBUTION WITHOUT DISINFECTANT RESIDUAL	101
5.3.1 Evidence from waterborne outbreaks	102
5.3.2 Evidence from contamination events	105
5.3.3 Evidence from water quality monitoring	109
5.3.4 Evidence from operational monitoring	113
5.4 SYNOPSIS	116
5.5 OUTLOOK\r	117
5.5.1 Improved microbiological monitoring	117
5.5.2 Improved monitoring by combining sentinel sensors with rapid microbiological assays	118
5.5.3 Improved use of operational monitoring	118
5.5.4 Epidemiology to assess safety	119
5.5.5 QMRA to improve science-based management	119
Acknowledgements	120
5.6 REFERENCES	120
Chapter 6:\rLegionella in drinking-water supplies	127
6.1 INTRODUCTION	127
6.2 INCIDENCE AND CAUSAL ORGANISMS\r	129
6.2.1 Legionnaires’ disease in Europe and the US	129
6.2.2 Identity of clinical and environmental isolates	130
6.2.2.1 Clinical isolates	130
6.2.2.2 Environmental isolates	131
6.2.2.3 Monoclonal antibody (MAb) types	133
6.2.2.4 Sequence-based types (STs)	133
6.2.3 Infectious dose	134
6.3 ECOLOGY OF L. PNEUMOPHILA\r	134
6.3.1 Growth substrates and amoebae	135
6.3.2 Temperature effects	136
6.3.2.1 Laboratory systems	137
6.3.2.2 Natural and man-made aquatic environments	138
6.4 LEGIONELLAE IN DRINKING-WATER SUPPLIES	140
6.4.1 Drinking water distribution systems	141
6.4.2 Hospitals, hotels and homes	142
6.4.2.1 Hospitals and hotels	142
6.4.2.2 Homes	143
6.4.3 Critical concentration	146
6.4.4 Disinfectant residual	146
6.4.5 Plumbing materials	149
6.5 CONTROLMEASURES IN POTABLE-WATER SYSTEMS\r	151
6.5.1 Regulations, standards and guidelines	151
6.5.2 Water temperature management	153
6.5.3 Disinfection technologies	153
6.5.4 Limiting accumulation of biofilms and sediments	154
6.6 DISCUSSION AND PERSPECTIVE\r	155
6.6.1 True incidence of LD	155
6.6.2 Water-supply associated LD	156
6.6.3 Drinking-water quality	158
6.6.4 Temperature and virulence	159
6.6.5 Perspective	159
Acknowledgements	160
6.7 REFERENCES	160
Chapter 7:\rOpportunistic pathogens in drinking water in the Netherlands	177
7.1 INTRODUCTION	177
7.1.1 Climate change	177
7.1.2 Demographic change	178
7.2 LITERATURE SURVEY	178
7.2.1 (Reported) cases in the Netherlands	179
7.2.2 Epidemiological link between organisms from drinking water and patients	181
7.2.3 Occurrence of opportunistic pathogens in drinking water in the Netherlands	182
7.2.4 Effect of temperature on growth of opportunistic pathogens	183
7.2.5 Priority for further research	184
7.3 DETECTION OF OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGENS IN DRINKING WATER	185
7.3.1 Fungi and Aspergillus fumigatus	186
7.3.2 Mycobacteria and Mycobacterium avium complex	188
7.3.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa	189
7.3.4 Stenotrophomonas maltophilia	190
7.4 OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGENS IN UNCHLORINATED DRINKING WATER	191
7.4.1 Temperature, ATP and cell numbers	192
7.4.2 Opportunistic pathogens	192
Acknowledgements	198
7.5 REFERENCES	198
Chapter 8:\rThe last meters before the tap: where drinking water quality is at risk	207
8.1 INTRODUCTION	207
8.1.1 Biofilms in drinking water systems	207
8.1.2 The problem of pathogen detection	208
8.2 DRINKING WATER INSTALLATIONS IN BUILDINGS VS. PUBLIC NETWORKS	209
8.2.1 Surveillance – the twilight zone\r	210
8.3 THE ROLE OF MATERIALS	212
8.3.1 Biofilm formation of new and aged materials	216
8.4 THE RESULT OF QUANTIFICATION OF BACTERIA IN DRINKING WATER AND BIOFILMS DEPENDS UPON THE ANALYTICAL METHOD	217
8.4.1 L. pneumophila and P. aeruginosa incorporated\rinto drinking water biofilms as a potential water\rcontamination source	219
8.4.2 The influence of copper ions	222
8.5 DISINFECTION	226
8.6 POPULATION ANALYSIS	227
8.7 CONCLUSIONS	229
8.8 SUMMARY	230
Acknowledgements	232
8.9 REFERENCES	232
Chapter 9:\rInvertebrates in drinking water distribution systems	239
9.1 INTRODUCTION\r	239
9.1.1 Invertebrates in drinking water	239
9.1.2 Significance	239
9.2 ECOLOGY\r	241
9.2.1 Hypotheses	241
9.2.2 Feeding, growth and reproduction	242
9.3 ABUNDANCE IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS\r	243
9.3.1 Methods, sampling sites and sampling programme	243
9.3.2 Abundance in drinking water	245
9.3.3 Abundance in water flushed from mains	247
9.3.4 Variability within and between distribution systems	248
9.4 CORRELATIONS WITH BIOFILM, NOM AND SEDIMENTS\r	253
9.4.1 Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR) and naturalorganic matter (NOM)	253
9.4.2 Correlation with biostability of finished water	254
9.4.3 Correlation with NOM and sediment	255
9.5 CONCLUSIONS	257
Acknowledgements	258
9.6 REFERENCES	258
Chapter 10:\rEmerging issues of biological stability in drinking water distribution systems	261
10.1 INTRODUCTION	261
10.2 BIODIVERSITY OF BIOFILMS\r	265
10.2.1 Bacterial abundance	265
10.2.2 Bacterial pathogens and faecal indicators in drinking water biofilms	268
10.3 EFFECTS OF PIPE MATERIAL AND CORROSION CONTROL	271
10.3.1 Comparison of biofilm support potential	272
10.3.2 Lining, coating, gasket and lubricant materials	273
10.3.3 Corrosion and the addition of phosphate-based inhibitors	273
10.4 OPERATION OF THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM	275
10.4.1 Water velocity and pipe biofilms	275
10.4.2 Low water movement and/or stagnation in the distribution system	275
10.4.3 Sediment accumulation and pipe flushing	276
10.5 CONCLUSION	277
10.6 REFERENCES	278
Chapter 11:\rRegrowth problems and biological stability assessment in the Netherlands	291
11.1 INTRODUCTION	291
11.1.1 Water treatment and distribution systems	291
11.1.2 NOM and bacteria in treated water	294
11.2 REGROWTH\r	295
11.2.1 Compliance with standards	295
11.2.2 Aeromonads and coliforms	296
11.2.3 Legionella	296
11.2.4 Free-living protozoa (FLP)	298
11.2.5 Other (micro)organisms in drinking water	300
11.3 ASSESSMENT OF REGROWTH POTENTIAL	301
11.3.1 Assimilable organic carbon (AOC)	302
11.3.1.1 Method	302
11.3.1.2 AOC-reduction tests	304
11.3.1.3 Effects of water treatment	305
11.3.1.4 Clogging of filter beds, injection wells and spiral-wound membranes	308
11.3.2 Biofilm formation rate (BFR)	308
11.3.3 Biomass production potential (BPP) of materials in contact with drinking water	311
11.4 IMPROVED METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE MICROBIAL GROWTH POTENTIAL OF WATER	313
11.4.1 Biomass production potential (BPP) of water	313
11.4.2 Continuous biofouling monitor (CBM)	314
11.4.3. Boiler-biofilm monitor (BBM)	315
11.5 EVALUATION\r	317
11.5.1 Regrowth assessment	317
11.5.2 Biostability assessment	318
11.5.3 Defining biostability	321
11.5.3.1 AOC, BDOC and BFR	321
11.5.3.2 Biological-stability classification	322
11.5.3.3 ATP-based biostability assessment (ABBA)	324
11.5.4 Regrowth control	325
11.5.4.1 Treatment	325
11.5.4.2 Distribution	326
11.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS\r	326
11.6.1 Regrowth	326
11.6.2 Biostability assessment	327
Acknowledgement	327
11.7 REFERENCES	327
Chapter 12:\rEnhancement of microbial growth by materials in contact with drinking water: problems and test methods	339
12.1 INTRODUCTION	339
12.2 MICROBIALWATER QUALITY PROBLEMS\r	340
12.2.1 Microbial growth	341
12.2.2 Problems	341
12.3 TEST METHODS\r	343
12.3.1 Need for test methods	343
12.3.2 Available test methods	344
12.4 STANDARDISATION OF TEST METHODS IN EUROPE\r	345
12.4.1 Research related to the EuropeanAcceptance Scheme	345
12.4.2 Optimisation of the BPP test	347
12.4.3 Three standardized test methods	351
12.4.3.1 Mean dissolved oxygen difference (MDOD, BS 6920)	351
12.4.3.2 Biomass volume (DVGW-W270)	352
12.4.3.3 Biomass production potential (BPP) based on ATP	353
12.4.4 Comparison of test characteristics	354
12.4.5 Comparison of test results	355
12.4.6 Further Developments Related to Standardization in Europe	356
12.5 CONCLUSIONS	357
12.6 REFERENCES	358
Chapter 13 Biological filtration for diverse applications: towards the development of a unified conceptual design approach*	363
13.1 INTRODUCTION	363
13.2 BACKGROUND\r	365
13.2.1 Factors affecting the performance of biofiltration	365
13.2.2 Review of modeling approaches	368
13.3 DEVELOPMENT OF A UNIFYING PARAMETER -\rDIMENSIONLESS CONTACT TIME (X*)	374
13.4 FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE X* PARAMETER	377
13.4.1 Simplification of X*	377
13.4.2 Secondary utilization (trace contaminant removal)	379
13.4.3 Biofiltration as membrane pre-treatment	380
13.4.3.1 Organic matter and fouling	380
13.4.3.2 Biofouling	381
13.4.3.3 Microbial product material	382
13.4.3.4 Effectiveness of biofiltration as a membrane pre-treatment	383
13.4.3.5 Net production of biomass	384
13.4.3.6 Net generation of dissolved microbial product material	387
13.5 DEFINITION OF A NEW PERFORMANCE PARAMETER: THE BIOFILTRATION FACTOR (BF)	388
13.6 SUMMARY	390
Acknowledgments	393
13.7 REFERENCES	393
Chapter 14 Optimization of design and operation of distribution systems to preserve water quality and maintain customer satisfac	401
14.1 INTRODUCTION	401
14.2 ROLE OF THE RESIDUAL DISINFECTANT	402
14.3 PROCESSES IN THE NETWORK\r	403
14.3.1 Introduction	403
14.3.2 Cause and nature of discolouration	403
14.3.3 Biological regrowth and sediments	405
14.3.4 Experimental verification of biofilm on sediments	405
14.3.6 Discussion	408
14.4 MANAGING PARTICLES IN THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK: A 3-STAGE APPROACH\r	408
14.4.1 Introduction	408
14.4.2 First stage: control of input	409
14.4.3 Second stage: control of hydraulics	410
14.4.4 Third stage: control of sediment layer by cleaning	412
14.4.4.1 Introduction	412
14.4.4.2 Minimum velocity	413
14.4.4.3 Flushed volume	415
14.4.4.4 Clear-water front	416
14.5 MANAGING NETWORK INTEGRITY/TOTAL QUALITY AWARENESS\r	417
14.5.1 Introduction	417
14.5.2 Total quality awareness	417
14.6 DISCUSSION	418
14.7 REFERENCES	419
Chapter 15:\rResearch needs	423
15.1 INTRODUCTION	423
15.1.1 Ranking of regrowth problems	424
15.2 OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGENS\r	425
15.2.1 Identity and priority	425
15.2.2 Detection	425
15.2.3 Surveys	427
15.2.4 Public-health significance	428
15.2.5 Control measures	429
15.3 OTHER REGROWTH PROBLEMS\r	429
15.3.1 Coliforms and aeromonads	429
15.3.2 Organisms involved in taste and odour problems	430
15.3.3 Invertebrates	431
15.3.4 Technical problems	432
15.3.5 Schematic overview	432
15.4 ASSESSMENT OF REGROWTH	434
15.4.1 Biomass	434
15.4.2 Detection of microorganisms with specific physiological properties	435
15.5 MICROBIAL-GROWTH POTENTIAL\r	435
15.5.1 Driving force for regrowth	435
15.5.2 Assessment of the microbial-growth potential of water	436
15.5.3 Biofilms and sediments	436
15.5.4 Enhancement of microbial growth by materials in contact with drinking water	437
15.5.5 Guideline values	437
15.5.6 Overview	437
15.6 EFFECTS OF WATER TREATMENT ON THE MICROBIAL-GROWTH POTENTIAL\r	439
15.6.1 Developments in drinking water treatment	439
15.6.2 Removal of biodegradable compounds and biomass	439
15.7 EFFECT OF DISTRIBUTION ON BIOMASS ACCUMULATION\r	440
15.7.1 Developments in water distribution	440
15.7.2 Impact of distribution system conditions	440
15.7.2.1 Hydraulics and residence time	440
15.7.2.2 Disinfectant residual	441
15.7.3 Potable-water installations	441
15.8 COSTS AND BENEFITS	442
Acknowledgement	442
15.9 REFERENCES	442
Index	445

Microbial Growth in Drinking Water Supplies

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