An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment

Joseph Holden

BOOK

An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment

Joseph Holden

(2017)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-292-08361-2
Edition: 4
Language: English
Pages: 840
Subjects

Abstract

This highly respected and best-selling textbook provides an accessible, engaging and comprehensive introduction to the major topics within physical geography. It focuses on understanding the inter-linkages between processes, places and environments and is comprehensively illustrated to demonstrate how the physical environment works.

Now in its fourth edition, the book has been thoroughly updated throughout to contain the latest research. Between them, the contributors have researched in detail every environment on the planet, providing an unrivalled source of rich information from around the world for both undergraduate and postgraduate study in the field of physical geography.

An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment is accompanied by a rich and extensive range of electronic support resources including updated weblinks relevant for each chapter, an extended and annotated further reading list for each chapter, multiple choice questions, fieldwork exercises and interactive models.

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover	Cover
Title Page	iii
Copyright Page	iv
Brief Contents\r	v
Contents	vii
Preface to the fourth edition	xv
Contributors	xvii
Editor’s acknowledgements	xviii
Acknowledgements	xix
Part I: The role of physical geography	1
1 Approaching physical geography	3
1.1 Introduction	3
1.2 Historical development of physical geography	5
1.2.1 Physical geography before 1800	5
1.2.2 Physical geography between 1800 and 1950	6
1.2.3 Physical geography since 1950	8
1.3 Scientific methods	10
1.3.1 The positivist method	10
1.3.2 Critique of the positivist method	11
1.3.3 Realism as an alternative positivist approach	12
1.3.4 Benefits of multiple scientific methods in physical geography	13
1.4 The field, the laboratory and the model	14
1.4.1 Approaching data collection from the environment	14
1.4.2 Approaching laboratory work	16
1.4.3 Approaching numerical modelling	16
1.5 Using physical geography for managing the environment	20
1.6 Summary	25
Further reading	26
Part II: Continents and oceans	27
2 Earth geology and tectonics	29
2.1 Introduction	29
2.2 The Earth’s structure	30
2.2.1 The interior of the Earth	30
2.2.2 The outer layers of the Earth	30
2.3 Rock type and formation	31
2.3.1 Igneous rock	31
2.3.2 Sedimentary rock	31
2.3.3 Metamorphic rock	33
2.3.4 The rock cycle	33
2.4 History of plate tectonics	33
2.4.1 Early ideas of global tectonics	33
2.4.2 Evidence that led directly to plate tectonic theory	34
2.5 The theory of plate tectonics	37
2.5.1 Lithospheric plates	37
2.5.2 Rates of plate movement	38
2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates	39
2.6.1 Divergent plate boundaries	39
2.6.2 Transform faults	41
2.6.3 Convergent plate boundaries	42
2.6.4 Hot spots	50
2.7 The history of the continents	51
2.8 Summary	52
Further reading	52
3 Oceans	53
3.1 Introduction	53
3.2 The ocean basins	54
3.2.1 The scale of the oceans	54
3.2.2 Geological structure of the ocean basins	54
3.2.3 The depth and shape of the ocean basins	55
3.3 Physical properties of the ocean	55
3.3.1 Salinity	55
3.3.2 Temperature structure of the oceans	59
3.4 Ocean circulation	60
3.4.1 Surface currents	60
3.4.2 The deep currents of the oceans	62
3.4.3 The weather of the ocean	64
3.5 Sediments in the ocean	65
3.6 Biological productivity	67
3.6.1 Photosynthesis in the ocean	67
3.6.2 Importance of nutrient supply to primary productivity	68
3.6.3 Animals of the sea	69
3.6.4 Pollution	73
3.7 Effect of global climate change on the oceans	74
3.8 Summary	75
Further reading	76
Part III: Past, present and future climate and weather	77
4 The Pleistocene	79
4.1 Introduction	79
4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback mechanisms	81
4.2.1 Orbital forcing theory	81
4.2.2 Evidence that orbital forcing causes climate change	82
4.2.3 Problems with orbital forcing theory	85
4.2.4 Internal feedback mechanisms	85
4.3 Short-term cycles	89
4.3.1 Glacial instability	89
4.3.2 The Younger Dryas	90
4.4 Further evidence for environmental change	91
4.4.1 Landforms	92
4.4.2 Plants	97
4.4.3 Insects	98
4.4.4 Other animal remains	99
4.5 Dating methods	100
4.5.1 Age estimation techniques	100
4.5.2 Age equivalent labels	101
4.5.3 Relative chronology	101
4.6 Pleistocene stratigraphy and correlation	101
4.7 Palaeoclimate modelling	105
4.8 Summary	106
Further reading	107
5 The Holocene	108
5.1 Introduction	108
5.2 Holocene climatic change	109
5.2.1 How the Holocene began	109
5.2.2 Drivers of climate change during the Holocene	110
5.2.3 The Little Ice Age	116
5.3 Holocene geomorphological change	117
5.3.1 Retreating ice sheets	117
5.3.2 Rising seas	118
5.4 Holocene ecosystem change	120
5.4.1 Responses of ecosystems to the end of the last glacial	120
5.4.2 Tropical Africa and the Sahara	122
5.4.3 European ecosystems	123
5.4.4 Island ecosystems	124
5.5 The rise of civilizations	125
5.5.1 Humans at the end of the last glacial	125
5.5.2 The beginnings of agriculture	126
5.5.3 Social and environmental consequences of agriculture	127
5.6 Human interaction with physical geography	128
5.6.1 Out of Eden?	128
5.6.2 Deforestation	128
5.6.3 Soil erosion and impoverishment	132
5.6.4 Irrigation and drainage	133
5.7 Summary	135
Further reading	136
6 Atmospheric processes	137
6.1 Introduction	137
6.2 The basics of climate	139
6.3 The global atmospheric circulation	141
6.4 Radiative and energy systems	142
6.4.1 The nature of energy	142
6.4.2 Distinguishing between temperature and heat	144
6.4.3 Radiation	144
6.4.4 Thermal inertia	149
6.4.5 The atmospheric energy balance	150
6.5 Moisture circulation systems	150
6.5.1 Moisture in the atmosphere and the hydrological cycle	150
6.5.2 Global distribution of precipitation and evaporation	151
6.5.3 The influence of vegetation on evaporation	153
6.5.4 Drought	153
6.6 Motion in the atmosphere	154
6.6.1 Convective overturning	154
6.6.2 The Earth’s rotation and the winds	155
6.6.3 Long waves, Planetary Waves and Rossby Waves	156
6.6.4 Jet streams	159
6.7 The influence of oceans and ice on atmospheric processes	161
6.8 The Walker circulation	163
6.8.1 El Niño Southern Oscillation	164
6.8.2 North Atlantic Oscillation	166
6.9 Interactions between radiation, atmospheric trace gases and clouds	167
6.9.1 The greenhouse effect	167
6.9.2 A simple climate model of the enhanced greenhouse effect	167
6.9.3 Radiative interactions with clouds and sulfate aerosols	170
6.10 Geoengineering	173
6.11 Summary	174
Further reading	174
7 Contemporary climate change	175
7.1 Introduction	175
7.2 Climate change	176
7.2.1 Long-term change	176
7.2.2 Recent climate change and its causes	177
7.2.3 Predictions from global climate models (GCMs)	180
7.2.4 Critical evaluation of the state-of-the-art in GCMs	182
7.3 The carbon cycle: interaction with the climate system	184
7.4 Mitigation	186
7.5 Destruction of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)	187
7.6 The future	189
7.7 Summary	193
Further reading	194
8 Global climate and weather	195
8.1 Introduction	195
8.2 General controls of global climates	196
8.3 The tropics and subtropics	201
8.3.1 Equatorial regions	201
8.3.2 The Sahel and desert margins	209
8.3.3 Subtropical deserts	210
8.3.4 Humid subtropics	211
8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates	215
8.4.1 Depressions, fronts and anticyclones	215
8.4.2 Mid-latitude western continental margins	219
8.4.3 Mid-latitude east continental margins and continental interiors	220
8.5 Polar climates	221
8.6 A global overview	222
8.7 Summary	228
Further reading	228
9 Regional and local climates	229
9.1 Introduction	229
9.2 Altitude and topography	230
9.2.1 Pressure	233
9.2.2 Temperature	233
9.2.3 Wind	234
9.2.4 Precipitation	235
9.2.5 Frost hollows	240
9.3 Influence of water bodies	240
9.4 Human influences	242
9.4.1 Shelter belts	242
9.4.2 Urban climates	243
9.4.3 Atmospheric pollution and haze	246
9.5 Summary	248
Further reading	249
Part IV: Biogeography and ecology	251
10 The biosphere	253
10.1 Introduction	253
10.2 Biological concepts	254
10.2.1 What is a species?	254
10.2.2 The naming of species	254
10.2.3 Levels of organization	255
10.2.4 Biodiversity	255
10.3 Patterns of distribution	258
10.3.1 Potential species distributions	258
10.3.2 Actual species distributions	259
10.3.3 Spatial patterns in biodiversity	260
10.4 Terrestrial biomes	261
10.4.1 Equatorial and tropical forests	262
10.4.2 Savanna	265
10.4.3 Hot Desert	266
10.4.4 Mediterranean-type biome	266
10.4.5 Temperate grassland	268
10.4.6 Temperate broadleaf forest	268
10.4.7 Taiga	269
10.4.8 Tundra	270
10.5 Aquatic biomes	272
10.5.1 Marine regions	272
10.5.2 Freshwater regions	274
10.6 Summary	275
Further reading	276
11 Ecosystem processes	277
11.1 Introduction	277
11.2 The flow of energy and resources	278
11.2.1 Energy entering an ecosystem	278
11.2.2 Ecological thermodynamics	278
11.2.3 Trophic levels and food webs	279
11.2.4 Biogeochemical cycles	280
11.3 Biotic interactions	281
11.3.1 Mutualism	282
11.3.2 Herbivory, predation and parasitism	282
11.3.3 Commensalism	283
11.3.4 Amensalism	284
11.3.5 Competition	284
11.4 Temporal change in ecosystems	285
11.4.1 Short-term changes	285
11.4.2 Disturbance and resilience	286
11.4.3 Succession	286
11.5 Human impact	289
11.5.1 Degrading ecosystems	289
11.5.2 Urban ecology	294
11.5.3 Conservation	294
11.6 Summary	297
Further reading	297
12 Freshwater ecosystems	298
12.1 Introduction	298
12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams	300
12.2.1 River ecosystem geomorphological units	300
12.2.2 Spatial variability of river ecosystems	302
12.2.3 Temporal variability of river ecosystems	308
12.2.4 Human alterations to river ecosystems	308
12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds	312
12.3.1 Classification of lake ecosystems	312
12.3.2 Spatial variability of lake ecosystems	315
12.3.3 Human influences on lake ecosystems	319
12.4 Summary	321
Further reading	322
13 Vegetation and environmental change	323
13.1 Introduction	323
13.2 Fundamentals of how plants respond to climatic variations	324
13.2.1 Light	324
13.2.2 Water	326
13.2.3 Temperature	326
13.2.4 Carbon dioxide concentration	327
13.2.5 Other climatic variables	327
13.3 Observational studies: how we know for sure that vegetation responds to a changing climate	327
13.3.1 The forest/savanna boundary in southern Amazonia	327
13.3.2 The northern tree line	329
13.3.3 Upward march of vegetation in mountains	329
13.3.4 Changes in the timing of flowering	330
13.4 Models for prediction	332
13.5 The complex interaction between human activities and climate change	336
13.5.1 Does atmospheric pollution sometimes benefit plants?	336
13.5.2 How does fire interact with climate change?	336
13.6 Loss of biodiversity	340
13.7 Agriculture and food security	341
13.8 Summary	343
Further reading	343
Part V: Geomorphology and hydrology	345
14 Weathering	347
14.1 Introduction	347
14.2 Environmental and material controls on weathering	348
14.3 Weathering and the role of water	350
14.4 Chemical weathering	352
14.4.1 Hydrolysis	352
14.4.2 Carbonation	352
14.4.3 Solution	353
14.4.4 Oxidation and reduction	353
14.4.5 Biologically related chemical weathering	353
14.4.6 Products of chemical weathering	354
14.5 Physical weathering	356
14.5.1 Dilatation – pressure release	356
14.5.2 Thermoclasty	358
14.5.3 Freeze–thaw (frost weathering)	359
14.5.4 Salt weathering\r	359
14.5.5 Biologically related physical weathering	363
14.6 Climatic controls on weathering	364
14.7 Geological controls on weathering	367
14.8 Urban stone decay and lessons for rock weathering	371
14.8.1 Stone decay is multifactorial	373
14.8.2 Rates of stone decay are unpredictable	373
14.8.3 Decay is spatially variable	374
14.8.4 Stress history is important	375
14.9 Summary	375
Further reading	376
15 Slope processes and landform evolution	377
15.1 Introduction	377
15.2 Slope profiles	378
15.2.1 Slope length	378
15.2.2 Slope steepness	378
15.2.3 Slope convexity	380
15.3 Hillslope transport processes	380
15.3.1 Chemical transport processes (solution)	381
15.3.2 Physical transport processes	382
15.3.3 Biological mixing	390
15.3.4 Particle movements	390
15.3.5 The balance between erosion processes	396
15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles	398
15.4.1 Concepts	398
15.4.2 Models	401
15.4.3 Interpreting landscape form	405
15.5 Summary	406
Further reading	406
16 Sediments and sedimentation	407
16.1 Introduction	407
16.2 Clastic sediments	408
16.2.1 Classification of clastic sediments	408
16.2.2 Clastic sediment grain shape and texture	409
16.2.3 Sediment transport and sedimentation	409
16.2.4 Products of sedimentation – bedforms	412
16.3 Biological sediments	415
16.4 Chemical sediments	417
16.5 Sedimentation in Earth surface environments	418
16.5.1 Continental environments	418
16.5.2 Coastal and marine environments	420
16.6 Response of sedimentation to environmental change	422
16.6.1 Dams and reservoirs	424
16.6.2 Mining	424
16.6.3 Urbanization	425
16.6.4 Sediment management	426
16.7 Summary	427
Further reading	428
17 Soils	429
17.1 Introduction	429
17.2 The components of soil	430
17.2.1 Mineral particles	430
17.2.2 Soil organic matter	430
17.2.3 Soil water	431
17.2.4 Soil air	432
17.3 Soil profile	433
17.4 Soil formation processes	434
17.4.1 Pedogenesis	434
17.4.2 Factors affecting soil formation	437
17.5 Physical properties of soil	441
17.5.1 Soil colour	441
17.5.2 Soil texture	441
17.5.3 Soil structure	444
17.6 Chemical properties of soil	445
17.6.1 Clay minerals and cation exchange	445
17.6.2 Soil acidity	447
17.7 Soil biology	449
17.7.1 The soil biota	449
17.7.2 Factors influencing soil biodiversity	451
17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil processes	452
17.8.1 Soil erosion	452
17.8.2 Soil acidification	453
17.8.3 Soil pollution	454
17.8.4 Soil organic matter and carbon	456
17.8.5 Other threats	458
17.8.6 Policy and legislation	462
17.9 Summary	463
Further reading	464
18 Catchment hydrology	465
18.1 Introduction	465
18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology	466
18.2.1 Precipitation	466
18.2.2 River flow	468
18.2.3 Evapotranspiration	472
18.2.4 Soil water	473
18.2.5 Groundwater	475
18.3 Flow paths to water bodies	476
18.3.1 Infiltration	476
18.3.2 Infiltration-excess overland flow	476
18.3.3 Saturation-excess overland flow	477
18.3.4 Throughflow	478
18.4 River discharge	483
18.4.1 Stormflow	483
18.4.2 Flow frequency	485
18.4.3 River regime	488
18.5 Flooding	489
18.6 Summary	491
Further reading	491
19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management	493
19.1 Introduction	493
19.2 Catchment processes: energy and materials for rivers	494
19.2.1 Runoff, river regimes and floods	494
19.2.2 Sediment sources and delivery	495
19.3 River channel morphology: measuring rivers	496
19.3.1 Channel networks and slope	496
19.3.2 Channel cross-section: width, depth	497
19.3.3 Channel planform	497
19.3.4 Channel boundary materials	498
19.4 River channel processes: understanding water and sediment movement	499
19.4.1 Water flow and flow hydraulics	499
19.4.2 Sediment movement	500
19.5 River channels: linking channel processes and morphology	502
19.5.1 Long profile	504
19.5.2 River channel cross-sections	505
19.5.3 Channel planform	505
19.5.4 Channel bed morphology	507
19.6 River channel changes: rates and types of channel adjustment	509
19.6.1 Cross-sectional change	511
19.6.2 Planform change	511
19.6.3 Human-induced change	513
19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river management: living and working with nature	515
19.7.1 River management and the engineering tradition	515
19.7.2 Living with rivers	516
19.7.3 River maintenance	517
19.7.4 Building new river channels	519
19.7.5 River restoration	520
19.8 Summary	523
Further reading	524
20 Solutes and water quality	525
20.1 Introduction	525
20.2 Solutes: some key controls	526
20.2.1 Solute form	526
20.2.2 pH and redox potential	526
20.2.3 Temperature and pressure	528
20.2.4 The role of particulates	529
20.2.5 Solute fluxes	529
20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system	530
20.3.1 Precipitation	530
20.3.2 Evapotranspiration and evaporation	532
20.3.3 Interception	533
20.3.4 Soil	533
20.3.5 Groundwater	535
20.3.6 Rivers	536
20.3.7 Lakes and reservoirs	536
20.4 The role of hydrological pathways in solute processes	538
20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes	540
20.5.1 Patterns of solutes in storm events: short-term changes	541
20.5.2 Annual patterns of solute concentrations	542
20.5.3 Long-term patterns of solute concentrations	544
20.6 Spatial patterns of solutes	548
20.6.1 Global patterns of solutes	549
20.6.2 Regional patterns of solutes	549
20.7 Modelling solutes and water quality	553
20.7.1 Modelling solutes in catchments	553
20.7.2 Modelling solutes in watercourses	553
20.8 Summary	555
Further reading	556
21 Drylands	557
21.1 Introduction	557
21.2 Aridity	560
21.2.1 Drylands	560
21.2.2 Causes of aridity	561
21.3 Dryland soil and vegetation systems	563
21.3.1 Dryland soils	563
21.3.2 Dryland vegetation	563
21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands	566
21.4.1 Dryland landscapes	566
21.4.2 Rock weathering in drylands	567
21.4.3 Hillslope and channel processes	568
21.4.4 Aeolian processes and forms	571
21.5 Environmental change in drylands	578
21.6 Summary	582
Further reading	583
22 Coasts	584
22.1 Introduction	584
22.2 Coastal morphodynamics	588
22.3 Coastal processes: waves	590
22.3.1 Linear wave theory	591
22.3.2 Wave processes in intermediate water	592
22.3.3 Wave processes in shallow water	593
22.3.4 Nearshore currents	595
22.4 Coastal processes: storm surge, tides and tsunami	597
22.4.1 Storm surge	597
22.4.2 Tides	598
22.4.3 Tsunami	600
22.5 Coastal classification	600
22.6 Wave-dominated coastal environments	601
22.6.1 Barriers	601
22.6.2 Beaches	602
22.6.3 Coastal dunes	605
22.7 Tide-dominated coastal environments	608
22.7.1 Wave- and tide-dominated estuaries	608
22.7.2 Estuarine mixing	611
22.7.3 Ebb- and flood-dominance	613
22.7.4 Salt marsh and mangroves	613
22.8 Fluvial-dominated coastal environments	614
22.9 Erosive coasts	617
22.9.1 Rocky coast processes	617
22.9.2 Coastal cliffs	619
22.9.3 Shore platforms	619
22.10 Coastal zone management	620
22.11 Summary	623
Further reading	624
23 Glaciers and ice sheets	625
23.1 Introduction	625
23.2 Glaciology	626
23.2.1 Types of ice mass	626
23.2.2 Where do glaciers occur?	627
23.2.3 Glacier mass balance	628
23.2.4 Transformation of snow into ice	631
23.2.5 Glacier thermal regime	631
23.2.6 Glacier water systems	632
23.2.7 Glacier dynamics	636
23.3 Glacial geological processes and glacial sediments	644
23.3.1 Processes of glacial erosion	644
23.3.2 Entrainment and transport	645
23.3.3 Deposition	647
23.4 The record of glacial change	650
23.4.1 Ice sheet reconstruction	650
23.5 Summary	654
Further reading	655
24 Permafrost and periglaciation	656
24.1 Introduction	656
24.2 Permafrost processes	657
24.2.1 The distribution of permafrost	657
24.2.2 Ground temperatures and permafrost thickness	659
24.2.3 Reconstructing climate change from permafrost temperatures	659
24.2.4 Gas hydrates	661
24.2.5 Hydrology in permafrost regions	663
24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost and periglacial environments	665
24.3.1 Ground ice features	665
24.3.2 Slope processes	670
24.3.3 Loess and aeolian activity	673
24.4 Summary	673
Further reading	674
Part VI: Monitoring and management	675
25 Monitoring environmental change	677
25.1 Introduction	677
25.2 In situ data	678
25.2.1 Satellite positioning systems	678
25.2.2 Telemetry	679
25.2.3 Environmental sensor networks	679
25.3 Remote sensing date	680
25.3.1 Platforms	682
25.3.2 Electromagnetic radiation	682
25.3.3 Image data	684
25.4 Camera sensors	689
25.4.1 Photogrammetry	691
25.5 Multispectral, thermal and hyperspectral sensors	693
25.5.1 Landsat	695
25.5.2 Spot	698
25.5.3 NASA’s Earth Observing System Program	699
25.5.4 High-resolution sensors	701
25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors	701
25.6.1 Microwave sensors	701
25.6.2 Ranging sensors	705
25.7 Digital image processing	710
25.7.1 Digital images	710
25.7.2 Image rectification	711
25.7.3 Image enhancement	712
25.8 Summary	718
Further reading	718
26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change	719
26.1 Introduction	719
26.2 Types of environmental hazard	720
26.3 Characteristics of environmental change	722
26.3.1 The nature of change	722
26.3.2 Rate of change	724
26.3.3 Environmental tolerance	725
26.4 Prediction	725
26.4.1 Monitoring	725
26.4.2 Modelling	726
26.4.3 Uncertainty	727
26.5 Risk and vulnerability	727
26.6 Management tools	727
26.6.1 Mitigation	729
26.6.2 Adaptation	729
26.6.3 Impact assessment	729
26.6.4 Life costing	730
26.6.5 Ecosystem services	732
26.6.6 Engagement	732
26.7 Summary	734
Further reading	735
Glossary	736
Bibliography	763
Index	795

An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment

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