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Book Details
Abstract
In the last couple of decades, research in the area of tissue engineering has witnessed tremendous progress. The focus has been on replacing or facilitating the regeneration of damaged or diseased cell, tissue or organs by applying a biomaterial support system, and a combination of cells and bioactive molecules. In addition new smart materials have been developed which provide opportunities to fabricate, characterize and utilize materials systematically to control cell behaviours and tissue formation by biomimetic topography that closely replicate the natural extracellular matrix. Following on from Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering: Fundamental Principles, this book comprehensively covers the different uses of smart materials in tissues engineering, providing a valuable resource for biochemists, materials scientists and biomedical engineers working in industry and academia.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering: Applications | i | ||
| Foreword | v | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Contents | ix | ||
| Chapter 1 - Applications of Smart Multifunctional Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Applications of Multifunctional Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 2 | ||
| 1.2.1 Bone and Cartilage | 2 | ||
| 1.2.1.1 Natural Polymers | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1.2 Synthetic Polymers | 6 | ||
| 1.2.1.3 Inorganic Materials | 9 | ||
| 1.2.1.4 Hybrid Polymer/Inorganic Materials | 11 | ||
| 1.2.1.5 Hybrid Synthetic/Natural Polymers | 13 | ||
| 1.2.2 Muscle | 15 | ||
| 1.2.3 Skin Tissue Engineering | 17 | ||
| 1.2.4 Cardiovascular | 21 | ||
| 1.2.4.1 Surface Coatings to Enhance Endothelialization | 22 | ||
| 1.2.4.2 Tissue Engineered Cardiovascular Devices | 24 | ||
| 1.2.5 Neural Tissue Engineering | 25 | ||
| 1.3 Clinical Potential and Applications of Multifunctional Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 26 | ||
| 1.4 Conclusions | 29 | ||
| References | 29 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Translational Smart Materials in Tissue Engineering | 39 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 39 | ||
| 2.2 Considerations of Smart Materials in Tissue Engineering | 40 | ||
| 2.2.1 Biocompatibility | 40 | ||
| 2.2.2 Structure | 40 | ||
| 2.3 Classification of Smart Materials in Tissue Engineering | 41 | ||
| 2.3.1 Synthetic Materials | 41 | ||
| 2.3.2 Biosynthetic Materials | 45 | ||
| 2.3.3 Biologic Materials | 48 | ||
| 2.3.3.1 Protein-Based Materials | 48 | ||
| 2.3.3.2 Polysaccharide-Based Materials | 51 | ||
| 2.3.3.3 ECM Materials | 52 | ||
| 2.3.3.3.1\rModulation of the Immune Response.Macrophages play an essential role in tissue remodeling following implantation of an ECM scaff... | 54 | ||
| 2.3.3.3.2\rDegradation of ECM Scaffold Materials.Normal tissue exists in a dynamic state and includes processes of degradation and remodeli... | 55 | ||
| 2.3.3.3.3\rCell Infiltration on ECM Bioscaffolds.The role of the ECM scaffolds and their degradation products is not limited to the immunom... | 57 | ||
| 2.4 Clinical Translation of Smart Material for Tissue Engineering | 58 | ||
| 2.5 Future Challenges for Translation of Smart Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering | 59 | ||
| References | 60 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Applications of Injectable Smart Materials in Tissue Engineering | 67 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 67 | ||
| 3.2 Stimuli-Responsive Injectable Polymeric Hydrogels | 68 | ||
| 3.2.1 Temperature-Responsive Injectable Hydrogels | 68 | ||
| 3.2.2 pH-Responsive Injectable Hydrogels | 69 | ||
| 3.2.3 Enzyme-Responsive Injectable Hydrogels | 70 | ||
| 3.2.3.1 Sol-to-Gel Transition | 70 | ||
| 3.2.3.2 Gel-to-Sol Transition | 70 | ||
| 3.3 Injectable Supramolecular Hydrogels | 71 | ||
| 3.4 Application of Injectable Smart Materials for Tissue Repair and Regeneration | 73 | ||
| 3.4.1 Bone | 73 | ||
| 3.4.2 Cartilage | 75 | ||
| 3.4.3 Skin | 78 | ||
| 3.4.4 Cardiovascular | 80 | ||
| 3.4.5 Skeletal Muscle and Tendon | 82 | ||
| 3.5 Conclusion and Perspective | 82 | ||
| References | 83 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Advances in Silicon Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering | 90 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 90 | ||
| 4.2 Fundamentals of Porous Silicon (pSi) | 91 | ||
| 4.2.1 Porous Silicon (pSi) Can Be Processed into a Variety of Shapes and Forms | 91 | ||
| 4.2.2 Control Over Pore Structure | 95 | ||
| 4.2.3 Surface Chemistry | 95 | ||
| 4.2.4 Cell Attachment and Differentiation on Porous Silicon | 97 | ||
| 4.2.5 Advantages of pSi/Polymer Composites as Implants for Tissue Engineering | 97 | ||
| 4.3 Porous Silicon as a “Smart” Biomaterial | 101 | ||
| 4.4 Porous Silicon/Polymer as a “Smart” Tissue-Engineering Scaffold | 101 | ||
| 4.5 Clinical Potential | 103 | ||
| 4.6 Summary and Future Opportunities | 105 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 105 | ||
| References | 105 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Applications of Conductive Materials for Tissue Engineering | 110 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 110 | ||
| 5.2 Conductive Materials | 111 | ||
| 5.2.1 Conductive Polymers | 112 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Polypyrrole | 112 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Polyaniline | 112 | ||
| 5.2.1.3 Polythiophene Derivatives | 113 | ||
| 5.2.2 Piezoelectric Polymeric Materials | 113 | ||
| 5.2.3 Other Novel Conductive Nanomaterials | 114 | ||
| 5.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes | 114 | ||
| 5.2.3.2 Graphene | 114 | ||
| 5.2.4 Self-Assembled Conductive Hydrogels | 115 | ||
| 5.3 Biocompatibility and Biodegradation of Conductive Materials | 115 | ||
| 5.3.1 Biocompatibility | 115 | ||
| 5.3.2 Biodegradability | 116 | ||
| 5.4 Modification of Conductive Materials | 117 | ||
| 5.4.1 Bioactive Molecules | 117 | ||
| 5.4.2 Biocompatible Polymers | 117 | ||
| 5.4.3 Topography Modification of Conductive Materials | 118 | ||
| 5.5 Applications of Conductive Materials for Tissue Engineering | 118 | ||
| 5.5.1 Applications for Nerve Tissue Engineering | 118 | ||
| 5.5.2 Applications for Bone Tissue Engineering | 124 | ||
| 5.5.3 Applications for Muscle Tissue Engineering | 127 | ||
| 5.5.4 Applications for Cardiac Tissue Engineering | 129 | ||
| 5.6 Conclusions and Perspectives | 132 | ||
| References | 134 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Smart Biomaterials for Cell Encapsulation | 144 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 144 | ||
| 6.2 Recent Advances of Smart Biomaterials | 145 | ||
| 6.2.1 Smart Biomaterials that Mimic the Native Microenvironment | 145 | ||
| 6.2.2 Smart Biomaterials that Overcome Suffocation | 148 | ||
| 6.2.3 Smart Biomaterials that Promote Vascularization | 150 | ||
| 6.2.4 Smart Biomaterials that Overcome a Foreign Body Reaction | 152 | ||
| 6.2.5 Smart Biomaterials that Direct Cell Phenotype | 155 | ||
| 6.2.6 Injectable Smart Biomaterials | 160 | ||
| 6.2.7 Smart Biomaterials that Remember Shapes | 162 | ||
| 6.3 Conclusion and Perspective | 163 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 163 | ||
| References | 163 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Multi-Functional Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering | 169 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 169 | ||
| 7.2 Multi-Functional Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering | 170 | ||
| 7.2.1 Passive Biomaterials for Mechanical Support | 170 | ||
| 7.2.2 Active Scaffolds | 173 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Biomaterials for Biomolecular Delivery | 173 | ||
| 7.2.2.1.1\rPeptides and Proteins.Growth factors are the most commonly delivered molecules through scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. In... | 173 | ||
| 7.2.2.1.2\rSmall Molecules.Small molecules are promising alternatives to stimulate bone regeneration, with their ability to minimize the pr... | 176 | ||
| 7.2.2.1.3\rNucleic Acids.Another major area involves delivering nucleic acids, which encompass DNA plasmids and micro/small interfering RNA... | 176 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Biomaterials for Biosensing | 179 | ||
| 7.2.2.2.1\rBiomaterial Constructs to Report Extracellular Conditions.Being a major component of bone, the extent of calcium mineral deposit... | 179 | ||
| 7.2.2.2.2\rBiomaterial Constructs to Monitor Intracellular Expression.Besides the techniques mentioned above, validation of successful oste... | 181 | ||
| 7.2.2.3 Limitations with Current Active Scaffolds | 182 | ||
| 7.2.3 Future Perspectives—Clinical Applications of Multi-Functional Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering | 184 | ||
| 7.3 Conclusions | 185 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 186 | ||
| References | 186 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Smart Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering of Cartilage | 194 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 194 | ||
| 8.2 Required Biomaterial Properties for Cartilage Repair | 196 | ||
| 8.3 Natural Polymers | 198 | ||
| 8.3.1 Collagen | 198 | ||
| 8.3.2 Hyaluronic Acid | 198 | ||
| 8.3.3 Chitosan | 199 | ||
| 8.3.4 Fibronectin | 200 | ||
| 8.3.5 Alginate | 201 | ||
| 8.4 Synthetic Polymers | 201 | ||
| 8.4.1 Polyurethane, Polytetrafluoroethylene, Poly Butyric Acid | 201 | ||
| 8.5 Smart Matrices (Scaffolds) | 202 | ||
| 8.5.1 Thermo-Responsive Matrices | 202 | ||
| 8.5.2 pH-Responsive Systems | 204 | ||
| 8.5.3 Self-Assembling Matrices | 207 | ||
| 8.5.4 Bioactive-Agent-Releasing Matrices | 209 | ||
| 8.6 Response to Dynamic Loading | 211 | ||
| 8.7 Matrix Metalloproteinase Response | 213 | ||
| 8.8 Shape-Memory Systems | 213 | ||
| 8.9 Future Prospects | 216 | ||
| 8.10 Concluding Remarks | 218 | ||
| References | 218 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Smart Biomaterials for Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering | 230 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction—Clinical Motivation | 230 | ||
| 9.2 Considerations for Vascular Neotissue Formation and TEVG Remodeling | 231 | ||
| 9.3 Smart Materials for Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering | 234 | ||
| 9.3.1 Decellularized Vascular Scaffolds | 235 | ||
| 9.3.2 Natural Polymeric Biomaterials | 236 | ||
| 9.3.2.1 Collagen Scaffolds | 236 | ||
| 9.3.2.2 Gelatin | 237 | ||
| 9.3.2.3 Elastin | 237 | ||
| 9.3.2.4 Fibrin | 238 | ||
| 9.3.2.5 Chitosan Scaffolds and Blends | 238 | ||
| 9.3.2.6 Silk Fibroin | 239 | ||
| 9.3.3 Polymeric Scaffold | 239 | ||
| 9.3.3.1 Biostable Synthetic Polymers | 239 | ||
| 9.3.3.1.1\rPTFE.The GORE® PROPATEN® Vascular Graft was produced by W. L. Gore & Associates (Gore) in 2006. It was heparin-bonded PTFE vascu... | 239 | ||
| 9.3.3.1.2\rPU (PEUU).Polyurethanes have been researched extensively over the past two decades and are elastic materials with exceptional ph... | 240 | ||
| 9.3.3.2 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers | 240 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.1\rPolyesters.Polyesters represent another class of synthetic polymers that differ most significantly from those previously mention... | 240 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.2\rPGA.Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) is among the most commonly used polymers in tissue engineering. It was one of the first biodegrada... | 241 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.3\rPLA.Poly(l-lactic acid) (PLA) is another widely used aliphatic polyester used for tissue engineering approaches. PLA is more hyd... | 242 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.4\rPCL.Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is an aliphatic polyester that has been thoroughly investigated. PCL is synthetic, hydrophobic, a... | 242 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.5\rPHA.Polyhydroxyalkanoates are a class of natural polyesters.68 PHA polymers, namely, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxybu... | 243 | ||
| 9.3.3.2.6\rPGS.Unlike the other previously described polymers which are formed from the condensation reaction of single monomers, poly(glyc... | 243 | ||
| 9.4 Myocardial Tissue Engineering | 243 | ||
| 9.4.1 Injectable Biomaterials | 244 | ||
| 9.4.2 Patch-Forming Scaffolds | 245 | ||
| 9.5 Heart Valve Tissue Engineering | 245 | ||
| 9.5.1 Biological-Based Scaffold | 246 | ||
| 9.5.2 Degradable Synthetic Scaffolds | 247 | ||
| 9.6 The Clinical Potentials and Applications of Smart Materials in Cardiovascular Disease | 248 | ||
| References | 249 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Advances of Smart Materials for Wound Healing | 258 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 258 | ||
| 10.2 Overview of Wound Healing Stages | 259 | ||
| 10.2.1 Wounds | 259 | ||
| 10.2.2 Phases of Wound Healing | 259 | ||
| 10.2.2.1 Inflammation | 259 | ||
| 10.2.2.2 Proliferation | 261 | ||
| 10.2.2.3 Maturation and Remodeling | 261 | ||
| 10.3 Current Methods and Material Applications in Wound Healing | 262 | ||
| 10.3.1 Wound Dressings | 262 | ||
| 10.3.2 Delivery Systems for Controlled Release of Growth Factors and Other Biomolecules | 262 | ||
| 10.3.3 Stem Cell Therapy in Wound Repair | 263 | ||
| 10.4 Stimuli-Responsive Materials for Wound Healing | 263 | ||
| 10.4.1 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Responsive Materials for Inflammation Treatment | 263 | ||
| 10.4.1.1 ROS-Responsive Materials via Solubility Switch | 264 | ||
| 10.4.1.2 ROS-Responsive Materials via Degradation | 265 | ||
| 10.4.1.2.1\rThioketal-Based Materials.Polymers containing thioketal linkages are cleaved into hydrophilic fragments such as ketones and orga... | 265 | ||
| 10.4.1.2.2\rPolyoxalate-Based Materials.Aryl oxalate ester-containing polymers have been studied to reduce the oxidative stress in injuries ... | 267 | ||
| 10.4.1.2.3\rBoronic Ester-Based Polymers.Boronic ester-containing polymers have been shown to generate phenol and boronic acid under H2O2-in... | 268 | ||
| 10.4.1.3 ROS-Responsive Materials via Mediation of Fenton’s Reaction | 268 | ||
| 10.4.2 Temperature-Responsive Materials for Wound Healing | 270 | ||
| 10.4.2.1 Temperature-Responsive Materials as Wound Dressings | 270 | ||
| 10.4.2.2 Thermo-Responsive Materials for Inflammation Reduction | 271 | ||
| 10.4.2.3 Thermo-Responsive Materials with Antimicrobial Properties | 271 | ||
| 10.4.3 pH-Responsive Materials for Wound Healing | 272 | ||
| 10.4.4 Enzyme-Responsive Materials in Wound Healing | 273 | ||
| 10.4.4.1 Matrix Metalloproteinase-Responsive Materials in Wound Healing | 273 | ||
| 10.4.4.2 Other Enzyme-Responsive Materials in Wound Healing | 274 | ||
| 10.4.4.3 Bacterial Enzyme-Responsive Materials for Infection Control | 277 | ||
| 10.4.5 Activated Platelet-Responsive Materials in Wound Healing | 279 | ||
| 10.5 Recent Advances in Wound Healing and Future Directions | 280 | ||
| 10.5.1 Gene Therapy in Biomaterials | 280 | ||
| 10.5.2 Stem Cell Delivery | 281 | ||
| 10.5.3 Advances in Immunotherapy | 282 | ||
| 10.6 Conclusion | 282 | ||
| References | 283 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Applications of Magnetic-Responsive Materials for Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering | 290 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 290 | ||
| 11.2 Application of Mechanical Cues via Magnetic Force | 292 | ||
| 11.2.1 Magneto-Mechanical Cues Applied via Magnetic Particles | 292 | ||
| 11.2.1.1 Safety of Nanoparticles in Cells | 297 | ||
| 11.2.2 Magneto-Mechanical Cues Applied Through Magnetic Scaffolds | 300 | ||
| 11.2.3 Cellular Response to Mechanical Stress | 302 | ||
| 11.3 Vascularization Challenge and Current Studies | 305 | ||
| 11.3.1 Vessel Structure Formation | 305 | ||
| 11.3.2 Induction of Vessel Structure Organization | 305 | ||
| 11.4 Generation of Functional Cardiac Tissue | 309 | ||
| 11.4.1 Effects of Magneto-Mechanical Stimuli on Maturation of Cardiomyocytes | 312 | ||
| 11.5 Magnetic Cell Targeting | 314 | ||
| 11.5.1 Magnetic Cell Therapy for Heart Regeneration | 315 | ||
| 11.5.2 Magnetic Cell Therapy for Blood Vessel Regeneration | 316 | ||
| 11.6 Effects of Electro-Magnetic Fields on Cells | 317 | ||
| 11.7 Magnetic Methods for Preparation of Specially Designed Tissue Scaffolds | 318 | ||
| 11.7.1 Anisotropic Morphology/Topography | 318 | ||
| 11.7.2 Remote Controlled Release Scaffold | 319 | ||
| 11.8 Concluding Remarks | 320 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 321 | ||
| References | 321 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Intestinal Tissue Engineering with Intestinal Stem Cells | 329 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 329 | ||
| 12.2 Tissue-Engineered Intestine Components | 332 | ||
| 12.2.1 Cells | 332 | ||
| 12.2.2 Intestinal Stem Cells | 334 | ||
| 12.3 Environmental Factors | 340 | ||
| 12.3.1 Mechanical Environment | 340 | ||
| 12.3.2 Chemical Environment | 345 | ||
| 12.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives | 349 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 353 | ||
| References | 353 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Smart Materials and Systems as Artificial Pancreas for Diabetes Treatment | 358 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 358 | ||
| 13.2 Smart Synthetic Systems as an Artificial Pancreas | 359 | ||
| 13.2.1 GOx-Mediated Systems | 359 | ||
| 13.2.1.1 pH-Responsive Materials | 360 | ||
| 13.2.1.2 H2O2-Responsive Materials | 363 | ||
| 13.2.1.3 Hypoxia-Responsive Materials | 364 | ||
| 13.2.2 Phenylboronic Acid (PBA)-Modified Systems | 364 | ||
| 13.2.2.1 Responsive Materials Based on Charge Change | 366 | ||
| 13.2.2.2 Responsive Materials Based on Binding Competition | 368 | ||
| 13.2.3 Glucose Binding Protein (GBP)-Modified Systems | 369 | ||
| 13.2.4 Insulin Modification | 371 | ||
| 13.3 Pancreatic Cell-Based Systems as an Artificial Pancreas | 372 | ||
| 13.4 Emerging Translation to Clinical Practice | 373 | ||
| 13.5 Conclusions | 377 | ||
| References | 377 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Smart Materials for Nerve Regeneration and Neural Tissue Engineering | 382 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 382 | ||
| 14.2 Stimuli-Responsive Biomaterials for Neural Tissue Engineering and Nerve Regeneration | 383 | ||
| 14.2.1 Temperature-Responsive Biomaterials | 384 | ||
| 14.2.2 pH-Responsive Biomaterials | 390 | ||
| 14.2.3 Self-Assembling Biomaterials | 391 | ||
| 14.2.4 Photo-Responsive Biomaterials | 392 | ||
| 14.2.5 Enzyme-Responsive Biomaterials | 393 | ||
| 14.2.6 Conductive, Electrical-Stimuli-Responsive Biomaterials | 394 | ||
| 14.3 Functional Delivery Systems for the BBB | 399 | ||
| 14.4 Clinical Potential and Applications of Smart Materials in Neural Tissue Engineering | 400 | ||
| 14.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook | 401 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 401 | ||
| References | 401 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Smart Cell Culture for Tissue Engineering | 409 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction | 409 | ||
| 15.2 Materials for Modulating Cell Adhesion and Detachment | 411 | ||
| 15.2.1 Poly(N-Isopropyl Acrylamide), a Material Worth Noting | 412 | ||
| 15.2.2 Alternatives to PNIPAAm | 414 | ||
| 15.2.2.1 Poly(Ethylene Glycol)-Based Materials | 414 | ||
| 15.2.2.2 Cellulose-Based Materials | 415 | ||
| 15.2.2.3 Chitosan-Based Materials | 416 | ||
| 15.2.3 Beyond Thermo-Responsive Materials | 417 | ||
| 15.2.3.1 pH-Responsiveness | 417 | ||
| 15.2.3.2 Electro-Responsiveness | 417 | ||
| 15.3 Modulation of the Culture Environment | 422 | ||
| 15.3.1 Microfluidic-Based Cell Culture | 422 | ||
| 15.3.2 Mechanical Actuation | 424 | ||
| 15.3.3 Repositioning of Cells | 426 | ||
| 15.4 Applications of Smart Cell Culture and Clinical Perspectives | 428 | ||
| 15.4.1 Cell-Sheet Engineering | 428 | ||
| 15.4.2 3D Culture | 430 | ||
| 15.4.3 Cell Segregation | 432 | ||
| 15.4.4 Clinical Perspectives | 433 | ||
| 15.5 Conclusion | 433 | ||
| References | 434 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Flexible Micro- and Nanoelectronics for Tissue Engineering | 439 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 439 | ||
| 16.2 Material Building Blocks and Their Interfaces with Cells and Tissues | 441 | ||
| 16.2.1 Inorganic Semiconductors | 442 | ||
| 16.2.2 Carbon-Based Materials | 446 | ||
| 16.2.3 Nanostructured Polymers | 451 | ||
| 16.3 Flexible Micro- and Nanoelectronics for Monitoring Biological Activity | 454 | ||
| 16.3.1 Nanoscale Electronics Based on Field-Effect Transistor Technology | 455 | ||
| 16.3.2 Implantable Devices for In vivo Recordings | 458 | ||
| 16.3.3 Bioresorbable Electronics | 459 | ||
| 16.4 Flexible Electronics for the Stimulation of Excitable Tissues | 462 | ||
| 16.5 Clinical Applications of Smart Materials in Tissue Engineering | 465 | ||
| 16.6 Conclusions and Outlook | 466 | ||
| References | 467 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Smart Materials to Regulate the Fate of Stem Cells | 473 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 473 | ||
| 17.2 Thermosensitive Materials | 475 | ||
| 17.2.1 Facilitating Cell Differentiation by in vivo Gelation | 476 | ||
| 17.2.2 Determining Cell Differentiation by Gel Modification | 477 | ||
| 17.3 Electroactive/Conductive Materials | 484 | ||
| 17.3.1 Electrochemical Materials | 484 | ||
| 17.3.2 Piezoelectric Materials | 485 | ||
| 17.4 Photo-Responsive Materials | 486 | ||
| 17.4.1 Photo-Activatable Materials | 487 | ||
| 17.4.2 Photo-Cleavable Materials | 492 | ||
| 17.4.3 Reversible Isomers | 493 | ||
| 17.5 Thixotropic Materials | 494 | ||
| 17.5.1 Stiffness-Induced Cell Differentiation | 495 | ||
| 17.5.2 Stress Stiffening/Relaxation-Induced Cell Differentiation | 495 | ||
| 17.6 pH-Sensitive Materials | 498 | ||
| 17.7 Smart Materials in Clinical Applications | 499 | ||
| 17.8 Conclusions and Perspectives | 500 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 500 | ||
| References | 501 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Smart Drug Delivery Systems for Tissue Engineering | 505 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 505 | ||
| 18.2 Smart Drug Delivery Vehicles | 507 | ||
| 18.2.1 Polymersomes | 508 | ||
| 18.2.2 Liposomes | 509 | ||
| 18.2.3 Hydrogels | 510 | ||
| 18.2.4 Dendrimers | 511 | ||
| 18.2.5 Other Delivery Vehicles | 511 | ||
| 18.3 Self-Regulated Smart Drug Delivery Systems and Their Applications | 512 | ||
| 18.3.1 pH-Responsive | 512 | ||
| 18.3.2 Temperature-Responsive | 515 | ||
| 18.3.3 Glucose-Responsive | 517 | ||
| 18.3.4 Multiple-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems | 519 | ||
| 18.4 Externally Regulated Smart Drug Delivery Systems and Their Applications | 520 | ||
| 18.4.1 Magnetic-Field-Responsive | 520 | ||
| 18.4.2 Light-Responsive | 521 | ||
| 18.4.3 Electric-Field-Responsive | 523 | ||
| 18.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective | 525 | ||
| References | 526 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Smart Materials for Central Nervous System Cell Delivery and Tissue Engineering | 529 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 529 | ||
| 19.2 A Brief History of CNS Cell Transplantation | 530 | ||
| 19.3 Objectives and Challenges for Modern CNS Cell Transplantation | 531 | ||
| 19.4 The Development of Biomaterials for CNS Cell Transplantation | 535 | ||
| 19.5 Emerging Smart Biomaterials for CNS-Based Cell Delivery Applications | 542 | ||
| 19.5.1 Protecting Cells during CNS Cell Transplantation | 542 | ||
| 19.5.2 Localizing Transplanted Cells to CNS Injuries and Preventing Migration | 545 | ||
| 19.5.3 Regulating Grafted Cell Differentiation In vivo | 545 | ||
| 19.5.4 Promoting Optimal Cell Graft–Host Integration through Modulation of the Biomaterial Host Interface | 546 | ||
| 19.5.5 Stimulating Transplanted Neural Cells with Smart Biomaterials | 547 | ||
| 19.5.6 Clinical Potential and Applications of Smart Materials for Central Nervous System Tissue Engineering | 548 | ||
| 19.6 Conclusions and Future Directions | 548 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 549 | ||
| References | 549 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Smart Multifunctional Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 558 | ||
| 20.1 Introduction | 558 | ||
| 20.2 Materials and Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 559 | ||
| 20.2.1 Tissue Engineering Strategies | 559 | ||
| 20.2.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 562 | ||
| 20.2.3 Technologies for Scaffold Manufacture | 563 | ||
| 20.2.3.1 Conventional Techniques | 563 | ||
| 20.2.3.2 Additive Manufacture | 565 | ||
| 20.2.3.3 Technologies for Fibrous Scaffolds | 566 | ||
| 20.3 Design and Manufacture of Multifunctional Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 568 | ||
| 20.3.1 Complexity in Native Tissue Regeneration Process | 568 | ||
| 20.3.2 Requirements for Multiple Functions of Scaffolds in Tissue Regeneration | 569 | ||
| 20.3.3 Composite or Hybridization Approaches in Developing Multifunctional Tissue Engineering Scaffolds | 571 | ||
| 20.4 Fabrication, Properties and Biological Evaluation of Multifunctional Tissue Engineering Scaffolds—Case Studies | 573 | ||
| 20.4.1 Selective Laser Sintered Multifunctional Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Regeneration | 574 | ||
| 20.4.2 Electrospun Multicomponent Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Regeneration | 577 | ||
| 20.4.3 Nanofibrous Cell-Laden Scaffolds for the Regeneration of Complex Body Tissues | 582 | ||
| 20.4.4 Theranostic-Embedded Scaffolds for Cancer Patients | 587 | ||
| 20.5 Concluding Remarks | 589 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 590 | ||
| References | 590 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Applications of Smart Microfluidic Systems in Tissue Engineering | 596 | ||
| 21.1 Introduction | 596 | ||
| 21.2 Thermo-Responsive Microfluidic System | 597 | ||
| 21.3 pH-Sensitive Microfluidic System | 599 | ||
| 21.4 Electro-Active Microfluidic System | 600 | ||
| 21.5 Light-Responsive Microfluidic System | 604 | ||
| 21.6 Magneto-Responsive Microfluidic System | 607 | ||
| 21.7 Enzymatically Degradable Microfluidic System | 608 | ||
| 21.8 Conclusion and Outlook | 610 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 610 | ||
| References | 610 | ||
| Chapter 22 - Smart 3D Printing Materials for Tissue Engineering | 615 | ||
| 22.1 Introduction | 615 | ||
| 22.2 Smart Materials | 616 | ||
| 22.2.1 Smart Polymers | 616 | ||
| 22.3 The Introduction of Hydrogels | 616 | ||
| 22.3.1 Environment-Responsive Hydrogels | 618 | ||
| 22.3.1.1 Thermo-Responsive Hydrogels | 618 | ||
| 22.3.1.2 pH-Responsive Hydrogels | 618 | ||
| 22.3.1.3 Light-Responsive Hydrogels | 619 | ||
| 22.3.2 Environment-Responsive Hydrogels in 3D Printing | 619 | ||
| 22.3.2.1 Degradable Hydrogels | 619 | ||
| 22.3.2.2 Non-degradable Hydrogels | 622 | ||
| 22.3.3 Self-Healing Hydrogels | 622 | ||
| 22.3.4 Self-Healing Hydrogels in 3D Printing | 623 | ||
| 22.4 Shape-Memory Materials | 625 | ||
| 22.4.1 Shape-Memory Materials for Biological Applications | 626 | ||
| 22.4.2 Applications of Thermo-Responsive Shape-Memory Materials | 627 | ||
| 22.4.3 Applications of Photo-Responsive Shape-Memory Materials | 628 | ||
| 22.4.4 Applications of Other Shape-Memory Materials Such as pH-Sensitive Polymers | 628 | ||
| 22.4.5 Applications of Shape-Memory Polymers in 3D Printing | 629 | ||
| 22.5 Conductive Polymers Combined with 3D Printing Techniques for Applications in Tissue Engineering | 630 | ||
| 22.5.1 Applications of Conductive Polymers in Tissue Engineering | 631 | ||
| 22.5.2 3D Printing of Conductive Polymers for Applications in Tissue Engineering | 632 | ||
| 22.5.3 Piezoelectric Materials for Applications in Tissue Engineering | 633 | ||
| 22.5.4 3D Printing of Piezoelectric Materials for Applications in Tissue Engineering | 635 | ||
| 22.6 Potential Clinical Applications of Smart Materials Combined with 3D Printing Techniques | 635 | ||
| 22.7 Conclusion | 636 | ||
| References | 636 | ||
| Chapter 23 - Smart Materials-Originated Microfluidic Systems for Tissue Engineering | 642 | ||
| 23.1 Introduction | 642 | ||
| 23.2 Chemically-Reactive Smart Materials in Microfluidics for Tissue Engineering | 643 | ||
| 23.2.1 Microfiber Fabrication Using Chemically-Responsive Smart Materials | 643 | ||
| 23.2.2 Microvessel Network Fabrication and Application Using Chemically-Responsive Smart Materials | 648 | ||
| 23.2.3 Microsphere Fabrication in a Microfluidic Device Using Chemically-Responsive Materials | 650 | ||
| 23.3 Photo-Responsive Smart Materials in Microfluidics for Tissue Engineering | 652 | ||
| 23.3.1 Microfiber Fabrication and Applications Using Photo-Responsive Smart Materials | 652 | ||
| 23.3.2 Microvessel Network Fabrication and Application Using Photo-Responsive Smart Materials | 653 | ||
| 23.3.3 Microparticle Fabrication in a Microfluidic Device Using Photo-Responsive Smart Materials | 655 | ||
| 23.4 Thermo-Responsive Smart Materials in Microfluidics for Tissue Engineering | 659 | ||
| 23.4.1 Microchannels Utilizing Thermally-Responsive Smart Materials | 660 | ||
| 23.4.2 Thermo-Responsive Microdroplet Fabrication in a Microfluidic Device | 662 | ||
| 23.4.3 Thermo-Responsive Microvalves and Pumps in Microfluidic Devices | 664 | ||
| 23.5 Conclusions | 666 | ||
| 23.5.1 Clinical Potential and Applications | 667 | ||
| References | 668 | ||
| Subject Index | 671 |