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Book Details
Abstract
Written by a leading academic in this field, Criminal Law combines coverage of the core legal principles with discussion of the theories and academic debates which underpin the subject. A range of hypothetical examples to illustrate problematic case scenarios and further reading suggestions are also included throughout the book making Criminal Law the ideal companion to support you in your study.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title Page | iii | ||
| Copyright Page | vi | ||
| Contents in brief | vii | ||
| Contents | ix | ||
| Preface | xvii | ||
| Publisher’s acknowledgements | xviii | ||
| Table of cases | xx | ||
| Table of statutes | xxxiv | ||
| Table of statutory instruments | xl | ||
| Table of United States legislation | xli | ||
| Table of international conventions | xlii | ||
| Abbreviations | xliii | ||
| Part I Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1 Understanding criminal law | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 What is the criminal law? | 4 | ||
| 1.3 What are the concerns of the criminal law? | 4 | ||
| A The support of public interests in – | 6 | ||
| B The support of private interests in – | 6 | ||
| 1.4 How are the criminal law’s purposes discharged? | 6 | ||
| A Law enforcement | 6 | ||
| B Bringing proceedings | 8 | ||
| C Trial | 9 | ||
| 1 Proving guilt | 9 | ||
| 2 Burdens of proof: evidential burden and burden of persuasion | 10 | ||
| 3 The presumption of innocence | 11 | ||
| 4 Judge and jury | 12 | ||
| 1.5 Where do the rules of criminal law come from? | 13 | ||
| A Common law | 14 | ||
| 1 Historical perspective | 14 | ||
| 2 The modern perspective | 15 | ||
| B Statute law | 20 | ||
| 1 Interrelationship of statute and common law | 20 | ||
| 2 The principle of legality | 20 | ||
| 3 Interpreting criminal statutes | 21 | ||
| 4 Fair warning and social protection | 22 | ||
| C European Union law | 24 | ||
| D The European Convention on Human Rights | 25 | ||
| 1 The Human Rights Act 1998 | 25 | ||
| 1.6 Logic and rationality in the criminal law | 29 | ||
| 1.7 Codification | 30 | ||
| 1.8 The draft Criminal Code | 32 | ||
| 2 Decisions to criminalise | 34 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 34 | ||
| 2.2 Principles and ideas informing decisions to criminalise | 34 | ||
| A Autonomy | 34 | ||
| 1 The harm principle | 35 | ||
| 2 What is harm? | 36 | ||
| 3 The harm principle: its influence on criminal doctrine | 38 | ||
| 4 Alternative notions of autonomy | 39 | ||
| B Harm prevention and other welfare values | 39 | ||
| 1 Enforcing morality | 40 | ||
| 2 Liberal objections to the enforcement of morality | 41 | ||
| 3 Is there a meaningful difference between legislating to enforce morality and legislating to prevent harm? | 42 | ||
| 4 Principled approaches to the enforcement of morals | 43 | ||
| C Practical criteria underpinning decisions to criminalise: thresholds of seriousness | 44 | ||
| 1 Grading wrongs | 44 | ||
| 2 Remote harms and non-victimising crimes | 45 | ||
| 3 Practical limiting criteria | 47 | ||
| 3 Punishment | 50 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 50 | ||
| 3.2 Punishment in the liberal state | 50 | ||
| 3.3 Theories of punishment | 52 | ||
| A Retributive theories | 53 | ||
| 1 In general | 53 | ||
| 2 Forms of retributive theory | 54 | ||
| 3 Punishment as an expression of censure | 55 | ||
| B Utilitarianism | 57 | ||
| 1 In general | 57 | ||
| 2 Forms of utilitarian penal theory | 58 | ||
| 3 Criticisms | 58 | ||
| C Mixed theories | 61 | ||
| 1 Hart’s solution | 61 | ||
| 2 Criticisms of Hart | 61 | ||
| 3.4 Rationality and politics in sentencing | 62 | ||
| 3.5 Conclusion | 64 | ||
| 4 Actus reus | 69 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 69 | ||
| 4.2 Elements of liability | 69 | ||
| 4.3 Interrelationship of actus reus, mens rea and defences | 71 | ||
| 4.4 The act requirement | 73 | ||
| 4.5 Exceptions to the act requirement | 74 | ||
| A Situational liability | 74 | ||
| B Possession offences | 76 | ||
| C Omissions | 78 | ||
| 1 Is it appropriate to criminalise omissions? | 78 | ||
| D Omission and crimes of commission | 80 | ||
| 1 Acts and omissions: what’s the difference? | 81 | ||
| 2 Omissions: the common law approach | 84 | ||
| 3 Circumstances giving rise to a duty to act: duty situations | 86 | ||
| 4 Circumstances governing the scope of the duty | 93 | ||
| 5 Omissions: an alternative approach | 96 | ||
| Summary | 98 | ||
| Part II General principles of criminal liability | 67 | ||
| 5 Causation | 99 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 99 | ||
| 5.2 Causation in crime and tort | 100 | ||
| 5.3 Causation and blameworthiness | 100 | ||
| 5.4 The purpose of establishing causal responsibility | 101 | ||
| 5.5 Causation: the legal position | 102 | ||
| A Factual cause | 103 | ||
| 1 Omissions as factual causes | 103 | ||
| 2 Causes and conditions contrasted | 104 | ||
| 3 Particular instances of factual causation | 104 | ||
| B Legal cause | 105 | ||
| 1 The general framework for imputing cause | 105 | ||
| 5.6 Particular examples of causal sequences giving rise to causation problems | 107 | ||
| A Subsisting conditions | 107 | ||
| 1 Medical conditions: the thin skull principle | 108 | ||
| 2 Other subsisting conditions | 108 | ||
| 3 Subsequent acts and events | 109 | ||
| 4 Breaking the Chain of Causation Intervening cause supersedes defendant’s act | 112 | ||
| 5.7 Causation and social justice | 116 | ||
| Summary | 120 | ||
| 6 Mens rea | 122 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 122 | ||
| 6.2 Choice and character: two models of responsibility | 123 | ||
| 6.3 Subjective and objective fault | 124 | ||
| 6.4 Mens rea and the structure of crime | 125 | ||
| 6.5 The mens rea words and their meanings | 126 | ||
| 6.6 Intention | 127 | ||
| A Everyday usage and its relevance to criminal responsibility | 128 | ||
| 1 Intention and risk-taking | 131 | ||
| 2 Summary | 133 | ||
| B Intention in the criminal law: intention, purpose and motive | 133 | ||
| C The meaning of intention in the criminal law | 134 | ||
| 1 The effect of Woollin | 136 | ||
| D Conclusion | 138 | ||
| 6.7 Recklessness | 140 | ||
| A Recklessness in the criminal law | 140 | ||
| 1 The subjectivist stance | 141 | ||
| 2 Caldwell recklessness | 143 | ||
| 3 The retreat from Caldwell | 144 | ||
| B Conclusion: recklessness and the politics of social control | 147 | ||
| 6.8 Knowledge and belief | 148 | ||
| A What counts as knowledge? | 149 | ||
| B How extensive does knowledge have to be? | 149 | ||
| 6.9 Negligence | 150 | ||
| A Liability for risk-taking: recklessness and negligence compared | 150 | ||
| B Negligence in the criminal law | 151 | ||
| C The justification for punishing negligence | 152 | ||
| 1 Negligence and capacity | 153 | ||
| Summary | 154 | ||
| 7 Strict liability | 156 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 156 | ||
| 7.2 Strict liability offences | 157 | ||
| A Public welfare offences | 157 | ||
| B Stigmatic offences | 157 | ||
| 7.3 Justifying strict liability offences | 158 | ||
| 7.4 The presumption of mens rea | 160 | ||
| 7.5 Rebutting the presumption | 161 | ||
| A The statutory context | 162 | ||
| B The social context | 162 | ||
| 1 Real crime and public welfare crime: a false dichotomy? | 163 | ||
| C Penal efficacy | 164 | ||
| 7.6 Defences | 164 | ||
| 7.7 Evaluation | 166 | ||
| 7.8 Corporate and vicarious liability | 167 | ||
| 7.9 The delegation principle | 169 | ||
| 7.10 The scope of vicarious liability | 170 | ||
| 7.11 Corporate liability | 170 | ||
| 7.12 The scope of corporate liability | 173 | ||
| 7.13 Problems of attribution | 174 | ||
| 7.14 Why punish companies? | 176 | ||
| Summary | 178 | ||
| 8 Relationship between actus reus and mens rea | 179 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 179 | ||
| A Temporal coincidence | 180 | ||
| 1 Qualifications to the requirement of temporal coincidence | 180 | ||
| B Definitional concurrence | 183 | ||
| 1 Qualifications to the requirement of definitional concurrence | 183 | ||
| 8.2 Mistake | 188 | ||
| Summary | 190 | ||
| 9 Defences (1) | 191 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 191 | ||
| 9.2 Categorising defences | 192 | ||
| 9.3 Excuses and Justifications | 193 | ||
| A Excuses | 193 | ||
| B Justifications | 194 | ||
| 1 The point of distinguishing between justification and excuse | 195 | ||
| 9.4 A common defence template | 196 | ||
| 9.5 Excuses | 197 | ||
| 9.6 Involuntary behaviour: general | 198 | ||
| 9.7 Involuntary behaviour (I): physical incapacity | 200 | ||
| A Prior fault | 201 | ||
| 9.8 Involuntary behaviour (II): automatism | 202 | ||
| A Automatism and crimes of mens rea | 203 | ||
| B Automatism, negligence and strict liability | 204 | ||
| C Conditions of automatism | 205 | ||
| D Prior fault: self-induced automatism | 206 | ||
| 9.9 Involuntary behaviour (III): insanity | 207 | ||
| A The legal test of insanity | 209 | ||
| 1 Defects of cognition | 209 | ||
| 2 Defects of reason | 214 | ||
| 3 Disease of the mind | 215 | ||
| B Involuntary behaviour: evaluation | 221 | ||
| 9.10 Mistake | 222 | ||
| A Definitional mistakes | 222 | ||
| B Mistake as to defences | 224 | ||
| 9.11 Intoxication | 226 | ||
| A Intoxication: its effect on criminal liability | 226 | ||
| B Distinguishing voluntary and involuntary intoxication | 227 | ||
| C Voluntary intoxication | 229 | ||
| 1 Crimes of specific intent identified | 229 | ||
| 2 The rationale for restricting the exculpatory scope of voluntary intoxication | 231 | ||
| D Intoxicated mistakes | 232 | ||
| 1 Intoxication and true defences | 233 | ||
| 2 Intoxication and statutory defences | 234 | ||
| 3 Intoxication and mental disorder | 234 | ||
| E Conclusion | 235 | ||
| Summary | 237 | ||
| 10 Defences (2): affirmative defences | 240 | ||
| 10.1 Relationship between the defences | 240 | ||
| 10.2 Compulsion: introduction | 241 | ||
| 10.3 The rationale for excusing on grounds of compulsion | 241 | ||
| 10.4 Compulsion (I): duress by threats – the legal position | 243 | ||
| A What threats are required? | 243 | ||
| B Threats against third parties | 244 | ||
| C A part subjective and part objective test | 245 | ||
| 1 The first question | 246 | ||
| 2 The second question | 246 | ||
| D Immediacy of the threat | 248 | ||
| E Prior fault | 250 | ||
| 1 Intoxication | 250 | ||
| 2 Criminal organisations | 250 | ||
| F Scope of the defence | 251 | ||
| 10.5 Compulsion (II): duress of circumstances | 252 | ||
| 10.6 Necessity | 253 | ||
| A The scope of necessity | 254 | ||
| B Necessity as an excuse – duress of circumstances | 255 | ||
| C Necessity as justification | 258 | ||
| 1 Necessity operating to defeat interests | 261 | ||
| D Necessity/duress of circumstances and murder | 262 | ||
| 1 Necessary action consented to and in the public interest | 263 | ||
| 2 Double effects and the preservation of life | 263 | ||
| 10.7 Use of force in public and private defence | 265 | ||
| 10.8 Purposes for which reasonable force may be used | 265 | ||
| A Rules governing the use of force | 266 | ||
| 1 The use of force must be necessary | 267 | ||
| 2 The degree of force used must be proportionate | 270 | ||
| 3 Proportionate from whose point of view? | 270 | ||
| 4 What counts as force? | 274 | ||
| 5 What offences may be committed for defensive purposes? | 275 | ||
| 6 Justifying killing | 276 | ||
| 10.9 Affirmative Defences: concluding remarks | 276 | ||
| Summary | 278 | ||
| Part III Offences against the person | 281 | ||
| 11 Non-fatal offences | 283 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 283 | ||
| 11.2 Offences protecting physical integrity | 283 | ||
| A Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent | 285 | ||
| 1 Actus reus | 285 | ||
| 2 Mens rea | 288 | ||
| B Malicious wounding/infliction of grievous bodily harm | 291 | ||
| 1 Actus reus | 291 | ||
| 2 Mens rea | 296 | ||
| C Aggravated assaults | 296 | ||
| D Assault occasioning actual bodily harm | 297 | ||
| 1 Actus reus | 297 | ||
| 2 Mens rea | 298 | ||
| E Other offences against the person | 299 | ||
| 11.3 Offences protecting personal autonomy | 300 | ||
| A Common assault | 300 | ||
| 1 Assault | 301 | ||
| 2 Battery | 303 | ||
| 11.4 Defences to offences against the person | 306 | ||
| A Consent | 306 | ||
| 1 The reality of consent | 306 | ||
| 2 Capacity to give consent | 308 | ||
| 3 What can be consented to? | 309 | ||
| 4 Consent and the Law Commission | 318 | ||
| B Necessity | 319 | ||
| C Lawful chastisement | 319 | ||
| 11.5 Reform of offences against the person | 320 | ||
| 12 Sexual offences | 324 | ||
| 12.1 The social context | 324 | ||
| 12.2 The historical context | 325 | ||
| 12.3 Rape: the elements | 326 | ||
| A Actus reus | 327 | ||
| 1 (Penile) penetration | 327 | ||
| B Mens rea | 329 | ||
| 12.4 Assault by penetration | 329 | ||
| A Actus reus | 329 | ||
| 1 Penetration by a part of D’s body or anything else | 330 | ||
| 2 A ‘sexual’ penetration | 330 | ||
| B Mens rea | 330 | ||
| 12.5 Sexual assault | 330 | ||
| A Actus reus | 330 | ||
| 1 The touching of another person | 330 | ||
| 2 The touching is sexual | 331 | ||
| B Mens rea | 332 | ||
| 12.6 Causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent | 332 | ||
| A Summary | 334 | ||
| 12.7 Consent | 334 | ||
| A Theoretical and policy considerations | 334 | ||
| 1 Relevance of fraud or force –presumptions | 336 | ||
| 2 Fraud – conclusive presumptions | 336 | ||
| 3 Evidential presumptions | 339 | ||
| B Section 74: a definition of consent? | 340 | ||
| 1 Consent or mere submission? | 341 | ||
| 2 Does a deceived person ‘agree by choice’? | 342 | ||
| 3 When does the intoxication of the complainant vitiate consent? | 344 | ||
| C Mens rea | 346 | ||
| D Summary | 347 | ||
| 12.8 Sexual offences against children | 348 | ||
| A Offences against a child under the age of 13 | 349 | ||
| B Offences against children under 16 but over 13 | 349 | ||
| C Engaging in sexual activity in the presence of a child | 350 | ||
| D Causing a child to watch a sexual act | 351 | ||
| E Arranging or facilitating commission of a child sexual offence | 351 | ||
| F Meeting a child following sexual grooming | 352 | ||
| G Other offences | 352 | ||
| 13 Homicide | 354 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 354 | ||
| 13.2 Meaning of homicide | 356 | ||
| 13.3 Punishing homicide | 356 | ||
| A Criminal homicide: the actus reus | 358 | ||
| 1 Reasonable creature | 358 | ||
| 2 Unlawful killing | 358 | ||
| 3 In being | 361 | ||
| 13.4 Murder | 364 | ||
| A Malice aforethought: overview | 364 | ||
| 1 The mental element for murder before 1957 | 364 | ||
| 2 The law post-1957 | 366 | ||
| 3 Sample jury directions | 368 | ||
| B Conclusions: a rational mens rea for murder? | 370 | ||
| 13.5 Malice mitigated: voluntary manslaughter | 371 | ||
| A Provocation: history and rationale | 372 | ||
| 1 Loss of self-control: the external trigger | 375 | ||
| 2 The elements of the defence | 375 | ||
| B Evaluation | 383 | ||
| 13.6 Diminished responsibility: the internal trigger | 384 | ||
| A General matters | 384 | ||
| B Statutory definition | 385 | ||
| C Elements of the defence | 386 | ||
| 1 Abnormality of mental functioning | 386 | ||
| 2 A recognised mental condition | 386 | ||
| 3 Substantially impaired D’s ability to do one or more of the things mentioned in subsection (1A) | 388 | ||
| 4 Providing an explanation for the killing | 389 | ||
| D Overlap with loss of self-control | 389 | ||
| E Infanticide | 390 | ||
| 13.7 Involuntary manslaughter | 392 | ||
| A Introduction | 392 | ||
| B Constructive manslaughter | 393 | ||
| 1 The elements of constructive manslaughter | 394 | ||
| C Manslaughter by breach of duty | 399 | ||
| 1 Elements of manslaughter by breach of duty: overview | 400 | ||
| D Corporate manslaughter | 403 | ||
| 1 The scope of liability | 403 | ||
| 13.8 Reforming criminal homicide | 404 | ||
| A Criminal act manslaughter | 405 | ||
| B Gross negligence manslaughter | 405 | ||
| Summary | 407 | ||
| Part IV Property offences | 409 | ||
| 14 Theft | 411 | ||
| 14.1 Theft: introduction | 411 | ||
| 14.2 Theft: the elements | 412 | ||
| A Actus reus | 413 | ||
| 1 The appropriation | 413 | ||
| 2 Property: general definition | 422 | ||
| 3 ‘Belonging to another’: who does property belong to? | 429 | ||
| 4 The property must belong to another at the time of the appropriation | 436 | ||
| B Mens rea | 436 | ||
| 1 Intention to deprive the owner permanently of his property | 437 | ||
| 2 Dishonesty | 444 | ||
| Summary | 449 | ||
| 15 Fraud and making off without payment | 452 | ||
| 15.1 Fraud: the law which it replaces | 452 | ||
| A The problem with the deception offences | 453 | ||
| B The solution | 453 | ||
| C Fraud | 454 | ||
| 1 Fraud by false representation | 454 | ||
| 2 Fraud by failing to disclose information | 464 | ||
| 3 Fraud by abuse of position | 465 | ||
| 15.2 Obtaining services dishonestly | 468 | ||
| A Actus reus | 469 | ||
| 1 Services | 469 | ||
| B Mens rea | 470 | ||
| 15.3 Making off without payment | 470 | ||
| A Actus reus | 471 | ||
| 1 Making off | 471 | ||
| 2 Payment for goods supplied or service done | 472 | ||
| 3 Without having paid as required or expected | 472 | ||
| B Mens rea | 472 | ||
| Summary | 473 | ||
| 16 Other property offences | 474 | ||
| 16.1 Robbery | 474 | ||
| 16.2 Introduction to robbery | 474 | ||
| A Theft | 474 | ||
| B The use or threat of force | 475 | ||
| 1 On any person | 476 | ||
| 2 Immediately before or at the time of the stealing | 476 | ||
| 3 In order to steal | 477 | ||
| 4 Mental element | 477 | ||
| 16.3 Burglary | 477 | ||
| 16.4 Common features in burglary | 478 | ||
| A Entry | 479 | ||
| B Entry as a trespasser | 479 | ||
| 1 Entry with occupier’s consent | 480 | ||
| 2 Entering in excess of permission | 481 | ||
| C Building or part of a building | 482 | ||
| 1 Burglary from part of a building | 482 | ||
| 2 Inhabited vessels or vehicles | 483 | ||
| 16.5 Modes of committing burglary | 484 | ||
| A Section 9(1)(a): entering with intent to commit certain offences | 484 | ||
| B Section 9(1)(b): committing certain offences having first entered as a trespasser | 485 | ||
| 16.6 Handling | 485 | ||
| A Actus reus | 486 | ||
| 1 Stolen goods | 486 | ||
| 2 Handling | 487 | ||
| 3 The goods must be stolen at the time that they are handled | 489 | ||
| B Mens rea | 490 | ||
| 1 Knowledge or belief | 490 | ||
| 2 Dishonesty | 492 | ||
| Summary | 493 | ||
| 17 Criminal damage | 495 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 495 | ||
| 17.2 Criminal damage | 495 | ||
| A Actus reus | 496 | ||
| 1 Destroys or damages | 496 | ||
| 2 Property | 497 | ||
| 3 Belonging to another | 498 | ||
| B Mens rea | 499 | ||
| C Lawful excuse | 500 | ||
| 17.3 Criminal damage endangering life | 504 | ||
| A Actus reus | 504 | ||
| B Mens rea | 504 | ||
| Summary | 506 | ||
| Part V Inchoate offences and complicity | 507 | ||
| 18 Inchoate offences | 509 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 509 | ||
| 18.2 Charging inchoate offences | 510 | ||
| 18.3 Inchoate offences and accessorial liability | 510 | ||
| 18.4 Attempt | 511 | ||
| A Justification for punishing attempts | 512 | ||
| B The potential scope of attempts | 512 | ||
| 1 Thwarted attempts: subjectivist and objectivist approaches | 512 | ||
| 2 Failed and impossible attempts | 513 | ||
| C The level of punishment: retributivist and utilitarian approaches | 514 | ||
| D When does the attempt begin? The common law tests | 516 | ||
| 1 Subjectivist tests | 516 | ||
| 2 Objectivist tests | 517 | ||
| 18.5 Attempt: the substantive law | 518 | ||
| A Actus reus | 518 | ||
| 1 The act interpreted | 518 | ||
| 2 Evaluation | 521 | ||
| B Mens rea | 523 | ||
| 1 Intention | 523 | ||
| 2 Attempts and recklessness as to circumstances | 525 | ||
| 3 Conditional intention | 528 | ||
| C Voluntary abandonment | 528 | ||
| D Impossibility | 529 | ||
| 1 Impossibility under the Act | 530 | ||
| 18.6 Conspiracy | 532 | ||
| A Introduction | 533 | ||
| B Justification for punishing conspiracies | 533 | ||
| 18.7 Statutory conspiracies | 535 | ||
| A Actus reus | 535 | ||
| 1 The agreement | 535 | ||
| 2 Constructing the agreement | 536 | ||
| 3 The parties to the agreement | 537 | ||
| 4 Subject-matter of the agreement | 539 | ||
| 5 Agreements subject to conditions | 540 | ||
| B Mens rea | 542 | ||
| 1 Knowledge of facts and circumstances | 542 | ||
| 2 Must the substantive offence be intended? | 544 | ||
| 3 An intention to thwart the criminal purpose | 545 | ||
| 18.8 Common law conspiracies | 546 | ||
| A Conspiracy to defraud | 546 | ||
| B Conspiracy to corrupt public morals | 547 | ||
| C Conspiracy to outrage public decency | 548 | ||
| D Impossibility | 548 | ||
| 18.9 Assisting or encouraging crime | 549 | ||
| 18.10 Relationship with accessorial liability: overview | 549 | ||
| 18.11 Part 2 Serious Crime Act 2007: overview | 549 | ||
| A Common elements | 550 | ||
| B Intentionally encouraging or assisting an offence | 551 | ||
| 1 Encouraging or assisting an offence believing it will be committed | 552 | ||
| 2 Encouraging or assisting offences believing one or more will be committed | 553 | ||
| C Defences | 554 | ||
| Summary | 554 | ||
| 19 Complicity | 557 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 557 | ||
| A C as sole principal offender | 559 | ||
| B C and W as joint principal offenders | 559 | ||
| C W as principal offender | 559 | ||
| 19.2 Complicity: definitions and terminology | 560 | ||
| A Principals | 561 | ||
| B Innocent agents | 561 | ||
| C Accessories | 562 | ||
| D Charging accessories | 562 | ||
| E Trial procedure | 562 | ||
| 19.3 The conduct element | 564 | ||
| A ‘Aid, abet, counsel or procure’ | 564 | ||
| 1 Level of participation | 564 | ||
| 19.4 The mental element | 571 | ||
| A An intention to aid or encourage | 572 | ||
| 1 Assent or approval-based tests of accessorial intention | 573 | ||
| 2 Evaluation | 574 | ||
| B Knowledge of circumstances | 575 | ||
| 1 How much does an accessory need to know? | 576 | ||
| C Liability for unintended consequences | 578 | ||
| D Joint enterprise liability | 579 | ||
| 1 Elaboration | 579 | ||
| 19.5 Relationship between liability of the parties | 587 | ||
| A Conviction of secondary party where perpetrator is not liable | 587 | ||
| B Level of liability | 590 | ||
| 19.6 Limits of accessorial liability | 591 | ||
| A Victim participation | 591 | ||
| B Intention to frustrate crime | 592 | ||
| C Withdrawal | 592 | ||
| 1 The case law | 594 | ||
| Summary | 597 | ||
| References | 599 | ||
| Index | 623 | ||
| A | 623 | ||
| B | 624 | ||
| C | 625 | ||
| D | 628 | ||
| E | 629 | ||
| F | 629 | ||
| G | 630 | ||
| H | 630 | ||
| I | 631 | ||
| J | 632 | ||
| K | 632 | ||
| L | 632 | ||
| M | 633 | ||
| N | 635 | ||
| O | 635 | ||
| P | 636 | ||
| R | 636 | ||
| S | 637 | ||
| T | 639 | ||
| U | 640 | ||
| V | 640 | ||
| W | 640 | ||
| Z | 640 |