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Book Details
Abstract
Natural Area Tourism provides a comprehensive description of tourism in natural areas allowing readers to understand the scope of, complexities arising from, and possibilities of undertaking successful tourism developments in natural areas. Furthermore, the second edition contains an overview of recent developments, such as mountain biking, adventure activities in protected areas and geotourism. There is new content and examples from the Asian region on managing the tourism industry and management effectiveness. The book also considers important new developments in monitoring, such as remote sensing and the use of GIS, as well as the use of electronic educational resources in delivering interpretation. Attention is given to the implications of climate change, inadequate protected area security and the ever-increasing influence of the landscape matrix. Moreover, the second edition includes a comprehensive review of the new literature that has emerged since the publication of the first edition more than a decade ago. Accordingly this book will remain an invaluable resource and account of natural area tourism for many years to come.
David Newsome is an associate professor in environmental science at Murdoch University, Australia. David’s research and teaching focus on the sustainable recreational use of landscapes, maintaining the integrity of peri-urban reserves and the assessment and management of tourism activity in protected areas. He has co-authored and/or edited 5 books in the areas of natural area tourism, wildlife tourism and geotourism and is a member of the IUCN World Protected Areas Committee.
Susan A. Moore leads the Nature Based Tourism Research Group at Murdoch University, Western Australia. Her expertise is natural area tourism, protected area management and biodiversity conservation policy. She has 150 publications including journal articles, books and reports and has successfully led more than 30 research projects delivering outputs to industry, government and non-government organizations, and the Australian Research Council.
Ross Dowling is Foundation Professor of Tourism, Faculty of Business & Law, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia. He has worked in the field of tourism in natural areas for almost 40 years as a foundation member of the NZ Ministry for the Environment, a founder and current director of Ecotourism Australia, and as a tour guide to national parks and wilderness areas.
This is a critical resource for all those working in the interrelated disciplines of protected area management, sustainable tourism, geography and conservation biology. It is beautifully written in a clear and comprehensive style allowing readers to engage with all the challenges and intricacies of natural area tourism. The second edition updates and expands on the first edition, incorporating the latest outcomes from this expanding area of research and practice. All three authors are authorities in this field with both theoretical and practical experience.
Significantly revised and updated, this new edition provides an excellent resource for students, teachers, researchers and practitioners of nature-based tourism. This book is one of the few that goes beyond paying lip-service to the environmental impacts of tourism. Working from ecological first-principles, the authors provide a sound basis for considering how tourism impacts the natural environment. Importantly, the authors critically consider a range of management approaches that can be put in place to avoid or mitigate these impacts, acknowledging the human element involved in planning, management, intervention and monitoring. The book is packed full with extremely useful 'vignettes' (or case studies) from around the world (from Komodo Dragons to coral reefs!) essential in illustrating the variety of ecosystems and species that interact with tourism. A strength of the book is its accessibility - it is well written, and makes good use of images and figures to convey a huge amount of useful information - as such I am sure that it will appeal to a broad audience.
The book sets out to argue that the foundation to managing tourism in natural areas is an understanding of the basic ecology of the area. This is a significant argument for many of the world's 160,000 or so nationally designated protected areas lay at the basis for a local tourism industry. The book takes the reader on a voyage from understanding the impacts of tourism to managing the visitors that cause them. Key reviews of management frameworks, strategies and actions are included. The text includes hundreds of references, an important feature for students interested in research. The book should be in every tourism researcher's library.
This book remains a valuable resource that is highly readable, well-illustrated and extensively referenced. As such, it continues to introduce and equip managers, students, and researchers from a range of disciplines to the phenomenon of tourism in natural areas. It continues to be very useful as a textbook for natural area tourism in the environmental and social sciences and should be recommended reading for tourism and natural area researchers, managers, and practitioners alike.
Pascal Scherrer, Southern Cross University, Australia
The book certainly achieves the goals it set for itself, and constitutes a solid and authoritative text on the ecology, impacts and management of natural area tourism. It provides an excellent summary of the main issues, interspersed with compatible case studies, offers management solutions, and is based on the state-of-the-art literature. While it is complete in its breadth, it is impossible to be so in depth on any one of the issues. Therefore, the main value of this book is its excellent overview and its use as a comprehensive source both for ideas and references…The authors are to be congratulated for compiling and presenting this extensive and highly relevant material on natural area tourism. The book will serve to acquaint the next generation of undergraduate and graduate students with this topic, and should also provide managers, planners and researchers with an increased understanding of natural areas tourism.
Wolfgang Haider, Simon Fraser University, Canada in Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 3-4 (2013) 47-48
The book contains numerous international case studies and is chock-full of theoretical and practical implications. It is so well written that each paragraph, section, and chapter are seamless, and the reader hears a unified voice as he/she reads. Overall, a valuable resource for libraries with an extensive collection in tourism science and planning.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contents | v | ||
| Figures | ix | ||
| Figure 1.1 Tourists in the remote Purnululu National Park, Western Australia, a World Heritage Area | 9 | ||
| Figure 1.2 The tourism system | 11 | ||
| Figure 1.3 Characteristics of natural area tourism | 14 | ||
| Figure 1.4 Management and scales of tourism: natural area tourism can encompass the whole spectrum | 15 | ||
| Figure 1.5 Nine Bend River in the Mount Wuyi World Heritage Site, Fujian Province, China. The area is famous for its red-coloured ‘danxia’ landscapes | 19 | ||
| Figure 1.6 Whale shark watching, Exmouth, Western Australia (Photo Tourism WA) | 24 | ||
| Figure 1.7 Geotourism attraction, Granite Skywalk, Castle Rock, Porongurup National Park, Western Australia | 26 | ||
| Figure 1.8 – Tourist walkway, Langkawi Global Geopark, Malaysia | 27 | ||
| Figure 1.9 Geotourists witnessing a volcanic eruption on Fernandina Island, Galapagos, Ecuador, in April 2009 (Photo: Ramiro Jacome, Galapagos Naturalist, Metropolitan Touring, Ecuador) | 29 | ||
| Figure 2.1 Levels of organisation within the science of ecology | 42 | ||
| Figure 2.2 Components of an ecosystem | 44 | ||
| Figure 2.3 Interaction of the biotic components in ecosystems | 46 | ||
| Figure 2.4 Moisture largely determines the development of terrestrial vegetation in the tropical climate zone | 47 | ||
| Figure 2.5 Generalised models of nutrient cycling (modified from Etherington, 1975; and Krebs, 1985). Key:  Global cycle of C, O and H.  Global nitrogen cycle.  Local-scale nutrient cycle (P, K, Ca, Mg and micronutrients) occurring at the ecosyste | 48 | ||
| Figure 2.6 Simplified marine ecosystem food chain and ecological pyramid | 49 | ||
| Figure 2.7 Example of a food web: kelp in marine ecosystems (Source of data: Two Oceans Aquarium, Cape Town, South Africa) | 50 | ||
| Figure 2.8 Conceptual model of ecosystem processes | 51 | ||
| Figure 2.9 Conceptual diagram of the hydrological cycle (local and global scale) | 52 | ||
| Figure 2.10 The potential role of the grey wolf as a keystone predator in Yellowstone National Park, USA | 57 | ||
| Figure 2.11 Factors affecting the establishment of woodland or grassland communities in the Serengeti–Mara region of East Africa. This community exists in two alternative stable community states, woodland or grassland. Trees are killed by elephants, human | 58 | ||
| Figure 2.12 A comparison of patches and corridors in the landscape matrix. (A) Agricultural matrix; (B) natural forest cover matrix | 62 | ||
| Figure 2.13 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapter | 64 | ||
| Figure 2.14 Predicted ecological impact caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi infection in the Stirling Range National Park, Western Australia. (Adapted from Newsome, 2001) | 67 | ||
| Figure 2.15 Ecological function of roads (After Foreman, 1995) | 68 | ||
| Figure 2.16 The coral polyp ingests a dinoflagellate, which then becomes incorporated into the gastric endodermis and forms a symbiotic relationship with the polyp | 77 | ||
| Figure 2.17 Ecological zones of a fringing coral reef | 78 | ||
| Figure 2.18 Global distribution of tropical rainforests | 81 | ||
| Figure 2.19 Different layers of vegetation which form the structure of a tropical rainforest | 82 | ||
| Figure 2.20 Canopy walkway, Taman Negara, Malaysia (Photo: David Newsome) | 85 | ||
| Figure 2.21 Kruger National Park, South Africa | 92 | ||
| Figure 2.22 Rural landscape in Leicestershire, England. The landscape consists of many patches and corridors comprising crops, grazing land, hedgerows, woodland remnants, roads and tracks (Photo: David Newsome) | 96 | ||
| Figure 2.23 Potential ecological implications of stress caused by disturbance to wild animals | 98 | ||
| Figure 2.24 Ways in which tourists can impact on the natural feeding activities of wildlife | 100 | ||
| Figure 3.1 Valley leading to the Jostedalen ice cap and Tunsbergdalsbreen glacier, Norway. Few people visit this remote area that is accessed across snowfields which are present throughout the northern summer. Beneath the snow are fragile and slow-growing | 105 | ||
| Figure 3.2 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapter | 106 | ||
| Figure 3.3 Signs informing visitors of prohibitive activities at the Boulders Penguin Colony near Cape Town, South Africa. This signage clearly indicates that visitor impacts are real and need to be controlled (Adapted from National Parks Board Visitor P | 107 | ||
| Figure 3.4 Change in campsite impact parameters under low to moderate levels of annual visitation, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (From Leung & Marion, 1995; Hammitt & Cole, 1998) | 110 | ||
| Figure 3.5 The proposed relationship between frequency of use and amount of disturbance, assuming two threshold points (Derived from Growcock, 2006) | 111 | ||
| Figure 3.6 The hierarchy among environmental parameters with changing amounts of use (Derived from Growcock, 2006) | 112 | ||
| Figure 3.7 Impacts of trampling on vegetation and soils | 115 | ||
| Figure 3.8 Result of a field experiment to quantify the environmental impact of horse riding in D’Entrecasteaux National Park, Western Australia (Derived from Phillips, 2000) | 116 | ||
| Figure 3.9 Resistance of different plant communities to trampling (Compiled by Liddle, 1997) | 117 | ||
| Figure 3.10 Change in relative biomass for different species of plant according to intensity of trampling (Adapted from Liddle, 1997; Sun & Liddle, 1993b) | 118 | ||
| Figure 3.11 Change in soil depth from the baseline micro-topography averaged across the first 5–25 cm of the treatment transect cross-sectional profile after various intensities of horse trampling in D’Entrecasteaux National Park, Western Australia (Deriv | 121 | ||
| Figure 3.12 Mean penetrometry results for campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia (Source: Smith, 1998) | 121 | ||
| Figure 3.13 Components of the universal soil loss equation (equation developed by Wischmeir & Smith, 1978 | 123 | ||
| Figure 3.14 Severe trail erosion in Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Photo David Newsome) | 129 | ||
| Figure 3.15 A comparison of degradation (m/km) between assessed trails in coastal south-western Australia (Derived from Randall & Newsome, 2008) | 133 | ||
| Figure 3.16 Trail surface showing compaction and linear rutting caused by mountain bikes, John Forrest National Park, Western Australia (Photo David Newsome) | 136 | ||
| Figure 3.17 Elevated cycle-way constructed off-trail for the purpose of mountain biking activity, John Forrest National Park, Western Australia (Photo David Newsome) | 136 | ||
| Figure 3.18 Impact of off-road vehicles on soils | 140 | ||
| Figure 3.19 Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles in semi-arid and arid ecosystems (Based on Edington & Edington, 1986) | 144 | ||
| Figure 3.20 Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles on beach environments | 145 | ||
| Figure 3.21 Boat trip from Sukau Rainforest Lodge with wildlife observation and the engine cut (Photo Albert Teo) | 149 | ||
| Figure 3.22 Conceptual diagram of the effects of sewage pollution in freshwater ecosystems | 151 | ||
| Figure 3.23 Campsite impacts on soils and ultimate effects on vegetation | 152 | ||
| Figure 3.24 Ecological significance of coarse woody debris in forested ecosystems | 154 | ||
| Figure 3.25 Methodology applied in assessing the loss of coarse woody debris from campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia: The line intersect triangle defines the survey lines for recording the presence of CWD (Derived from Smith, 1998) | 155 | ||
| Figure 3.26 Relative abundance of coarse woody debris at campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia: Number of ‘contacts’ by diameter class (Source: Smith, 1988) | 156 | ||
| Figure 3.27 Bank erosion: ‘scalloping’, root exposure and loss of riparian vegetation adjacent to campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia (Photo Amanda Smith) | 162 | ||
| Figure 3.28 Bat observation platform Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia \n(Photo David Newsome) | 175 | ||
| Figure 3.29 Conceptual diagram of cave habitats | 177 | ||
| Figure 3.30 Information panel at Lesueur National Park, Western Australia, an international wildflower tourism destination (Photo David Newsome) | 184 | ||
| Figure 3.31 Extensive management presence and overdevelopment at Yehliu Geopark in Taiwan. Note that the boardwalk fails to contain visitors (Photo David Newsome) | 187 | ||
| Figure 3.32 Potential impacts from non-natural patches | 193 | ||
| Figure 4.1 A generic planning process | 202 | ||
| Figure 4.2 Possible stakeholders of natural area tourism (Derived from Hall & McArthur, 1998; Sautter & Leisen, 1999) | 203 | ||
| Figure 4.3 Ladder of citizen participation (Derived from Arnstein, 1969) | 206 | ||
| Figure 4.4 Chronological relationship between the recreation/tourism planning frameworks (Derived from Nilsen & Tayler, 1998; acronyms are defined throughout the chapter) | 211 | ||
| Figure 4.5 The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (Derived from Clark & Stankey, 1979) | 212 | ||
| Figure 4.6 Process for applying the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum planning framework (Derived from Stankey & Brown, 1981) | 214 | ||
| Figure 4.7 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter | 218 | ||
| Figure 4.8 Process for applying the Limits of Acceptable Change planning framework (Derived from Stankey et al., 1985) | 219 | ||
| Figure 4.9 Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, USA (Photo: Steve McCool) | 222 | ||
| Figure 4.10 Process for applying the Visitor Impact Management planning framework (Derived from Graefe et al., 1990) | 224 | ||
| Figure 4.11 Process for applying the Tourism Optimisation Management Model (Derived from Manadis Roberts Consultants, 1997; McArthur, 2000a) | 227 | ||
| Figure 4.12 Using the Tourism Optimisation Management Model to take management action (Derived from Manidis Roberts Consultants, 1997) | 230 | ||
| Figure 4.13 The Visitor Activity Management Process as part of national park management (Derived from McArthur, 2000a) | 232 | ||
| Figure 4.14 Process for applying the Visitor Activity Management Process (Derived from Nilsen & Tayler, 1998) | 233 | ||
| Figure 4.15 Process for applying the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection planning framework (Derived from Nilsen & Tayler, 1998) | 234 | ||
| Figure 5.1 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter | 243 | ||
| Figure 5.2 Zoning of international biosphere reserves (Derived from Batisse, 1982) | 250 | ||
| Figure 5.3 Common ways of classifying approaches to managing visitors to natural areas (Derived from Lucas, 1990a; Hammitt & Cole, 1998) | 256 | ||
| Figure 5.4 Walking track in Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage site, Australia (Photo: Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania) | 262 | ||
| Figure 5.5 Factors influencing the choice of management actions by managers | 279 | ||
| Figure 5.6 Aboriginal shelter and interpretation, Nourlangie, Kakadu National Park (Photo: S. Moore, Murdoch University) | 283 | ||
| Figure 5.7 Environmental management system model (Derived from Standards Australia, 1997) | 289 | ||
| Figure 6.1 The education–knowledge–awareness relationship embodied within interpretation | 295 | ||
| Figure 6.2 Learning about skulls and teeth is best achieved if visual aids and specimens are available as a first-hand experience and active involvement | 297 | ||
| Figure 6.3 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapter | 299 | ||
| Figure 6.4 Stationary terminal in a visitor centre for a network of protected areas in the cultural landscape of the Hoexter district in Germany. At such terminals visitors can access all the multimedia information on iPads. In addition, they can download | 307 | ||
| Figure 6.5 The talking pen and interactive map developed by staff at the Hon Kong Geopark in order to facilitate self-guided touring (Photo D. Newsome) | 308 | ||
| Figure 6.6 Interactive landscape model in a geo-interpretive centre, Grand Canyon National Park, USA (Photo D. Newsome) | 310 | ||
| Figure 6.7 Information panel indicating the site, walk trails and main features of the Mount Matilda Walk Trail, Western Australia (Photo D. Newsome) | 311 | ||
| Figure 6.8 Interpretive panel located at a lookout at the Shark Bay World Heritage site, Western Australia. The panel presents the main elements of the region’s ecology, illustrated with diagrams (Photo D. Newsome) | 312 | ||
| Figure 6.9 Orang-utan feeding platform at Bukit Lawang, Sumatra, Indonesia. Orang-utans frequently leave the platform and move among the tourists. Such interactions necessitate ranger presence to manage visitors and deliver interpretation (Photo D. Newsom | 317 | ||
| Figure 7.1 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter | 329 | ||
| Figure 7.2 Variable radial transect method for measuring site area (Derived from Marion, 1991) | 335 | ||
| Figure 7.3 Geometric figure method for measuring site area (Derived from Marion, 1991) | 336 | ||
| Figure 7.4 Method for measuring trail cross-sectional area to determine trail erosion (Derived from Hammitt & Cole, 1998) | 346 | ||
| Figure 7.5 Importance–performance grid (Derived from Oh, 2001) | 367 | ||
| Figure 8.1 Tsavo West National Park, Kenya. While the tourists come to see the ‘big game’ (wildlife), they take away a myriad of experiences from their interaction with and connection to the landscape, wildlife and people of the region | 382 | ||
| Figure 8.2 Stuðlaberg (the formation of basaltic columns) at Reynisstaðarfjara, eastern Iceland. Over time the rocks can be impacted by thousands of tourists clambering over them | 383 | ||
| Figure 8.3 Sample views of a geological electronic tour guide, Sultanate of Oman.l The system is currently functional on iPhone, iPad and Android smartphone, as well as Blackberry (© INTEWO) | 386 | ||
| Figure 8.4 Tour group planting trees on the banks of the Kinabatangaan River, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, as part of a voluntourism riverbank rehabilitation programme | 388 | ||
| Tables | xiii | ||
| Table 2.1 The major types of ecosystem | 45 | ||
| Table 2.2 Comparison of some important ecological characteristics of selected ecosystems | 70 | ||
| Table 2.3 Selected nature based tourism destinations in tropical East Asia | 84 | ||
| Table 3.1 Examples of significant non-motorised outdoor recreational demand and activities taking place in natural areas | 108 | ||
| Table 3.2 Ten criteria for determining the significance of biophysical impacts | 113 | ||
| Table 3.3 Negative effects of road networks on wildlife | 125 | ||
| Table 3.4 Highway mortality of large carnivores in the Bow River Valley, Alberta, 1985–95 | 127 | ||
| Table 3.5 Management context and evaluation of various strategies to reduce road kill in Australia | 128 | ||
| Table 3.6 Comparison of actual and potential environmental impacts arising from three important recreational and tourism activities | 130 | ||
| Table 3.7\tEnvironmental impacts of infrastructure and support facilities in the development of tourism | 148 | ||
| Table 3.8 Impacts of littering: Items commonly found along walk trails, at campsites and at day-use areas, and their likely social and biophysical impacts | 157 | ||
| Table 3.9 Ecological implications of visitor activities in and around aquatic ecosystems | 160 | ||
| Table 3.10 Mean width, depth, distance and erosion of main riverbank access trails from campsites at Warren National Park | 163 | ||
| Table 3.11 Recreational impacts on coastal marine ecosystems and water-edge environments | 167 | ||
| Table 3.13 Impacts of trampling on coral reef at the Tower site, Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt | 169 | ||
| Table 3.14 Impacts of trampling and snorkelling on coral reef at the Ras Umm Sidd site, Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt: Mean coral colony heights and diameters on the reef flat according to tourist activity | 170 | ||
| Table 3.15 Examples wildlife sighting opportunities and activities | 179 | ||
| Table 3.16 An approach to understanding human interest in wildlife | 181 | ||
| Table 3.17 Examples of tourism centred on wildflowers and specific types of vegetation | 185 | ||
| Table 3.18 Threats and obstacles to conservation of natural areas and wildlife, protected areas and sustainable tourism in South and East Asia | 197 | ||
| Table 4.1 Stakeholder involvement techniques in visitor planning for natural areas | 207 | ||
| Table 4.2 Recreation opportunity classes | 213 | ||
| Table 4.3 Choosing the ‘best’ recreation/tourism planning framework | 237 | ||
| Table 5.1 IUCN protected area categories | 246 | ||
| Table 5.2 Governance models for protected areas | 252 | ||
| Table 5.3 Ways of classifying approaches to managing visitors to natural areas | 257 | ||
| Table 5.4 Methods for managing human wastes in natural areas | 267 | ||
| Table 5.5 Ways of allocating visitor access to natural areas | 272 | ||
| Table 5.6 Nature and extent of restrictions on visitor use in natural areas | 273 | ||
| Table 5.7 Principles of the Leave No Trace low-impact education programme | 278 | ||
| Table 6.1 Role of interpretation in fostering appropriate and sustainable tourism at natural attractions using a de-marketing approach | 301 | ||
| Table 6.2 Summary of major interpretation techniques | 304 | ||
| Table 7.1 Steps in a monitoring programme for resource impacts and visitors in natural areas | 332 | ||
| Table 7.2 Summary of campsite monitoring techniques | 334 | ||
| Table 7.3 Condition classes for monitoring campsites in natural areas | 337 | ||
| Table 7.4 Indicators commonly used in multiple indicator ratings systems | 339 | ||
| Table 7.5 Indicators commonly used in multiple indicator measurement systems | 341 | ||
| Table 7.6 Summary of trail monitoring techniques (organised according to Marion et al., 2011) | 345 | ||
| Table 7.7 Condition classes for monitoring informal walk trails in natural areas | 348 | ||
| Table 7.8 Rating scale for monitoring gravel roads in natural areas | 352 | ||
| Table 7.9 Summary of different areas of focus for visitor monitoring, monitoring techniques and main uses of the resultant data | 355 | ||
| Table 7.10 Summary of visitor monitoring techniques | 357 | ||
| Table 7.11 Visitor (object) counting and tracking technologies | 360 | ||
| Table 7.12 Standards for social and biophysical indicators for the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex | 370 | ||
| Table 7.13 Headline indicators from a global PAME assessment conducted by Leverington et al. (2010) | 373 | ||
| Boxes | xv | ||
| Box 1.1 Naturalness, ecological integrity and natural experiences | 6 | ||
| Box 1.2 Definition and classification of ‘tourists’ | 9 | ||
| Box 1.3 Case study of ecotourism development: An industry association – Ecotourism Australia | 17 | ||
| Box 1.4 Geotourism – Galapagos Islands, Ecuador | 28 | ||
| Box 1.5 Case study: Sustainable tourism – Kumul Lodge, Papua New Guinea | 33 | ||
| Box 2.1 Relation of organisms to their environment: Habitat and niche | 55 | ||
| Box 2.2 Case study: The spread of an introduced pathogen through tourism corridors in the Stirling Range National Park, Western Australia | 66 | ||
| Box 2.3 The Kruger National Park in the landscape matrix | 93 | ||
| Box 3.1 Assessing the erosion risk in the Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa | 132 | ||
| Box 3.2 Factors influencing the degree of impact caused by off-road vehicles | 141 | ||
| Box 3.3 Case study: Sukau Rainforest Lodge, a tour and accommodation facility situated on the banks of the Kinbatangan River, Sabah, Malaysia | 149 | ||
| Box 3.4 Assessing the loss of coarse woody debris (CWD) around campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia | 155 | ||
| Box 4.1 Applying ROS to Mount Cole Forest, Victoria, Australia | 215 | ||
| Box 4.2 Using ROS to classify the recreation opportunities offered by Thailand’s national parks | 216 | ||
| Box 4.3 Applying LAC to the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana, USA | 221 | ||
| Box 4.4 Applying LAC to Koh Chang National Marine Park, Thailand | 222 | ||
| Box 4.5 Applying VIM to the Jenolan Caves Reserve, New South Wales, Australia | 225 | ||
| Box 4.6 Applying TOMM to Kangaroo Island, South Australia, Australia | 228 | ||
| Box 5.1 Government-managed protected areas in Australia | 247 | ||
| Box 5.2 Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve and natural area tourism | 251 | ||
| Box 5.3 National park and marine park zoning in Western Australia | 255 | ||
| Box 5.4 Management to improve trail conditions: Examples from England and Australia | 263 | ||
| Box 5.5 Deciding when to install toilets in natural areas | 266 | ||
| Box 5.6 Locating and managing facilities in coastal settings: Fraser Island World Heritage site, Australia | 269 | ||
| Box 5.7 Regulating visitor use: Michaelmas Cay and Reef, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia | 274 | ||
| Box 5.8 A combined approach to management: Kakadu National Park, northern Australia | 282 | ||
| Box 5.9 Antarctica: Guidelines for the conduct of tourism and tourists | 286 | ||
| Box 5.10 Environmental management systems for ski resorts in the Australian Alps | 288 | ||
| Box 5.11 Environmental best practice: A toolkit prepared for the Canadian tourism industry | 290 | ||
| Box 6.1 Definitions of interpretation | 296 | ||
| Box 6.2 Scottish Seabird Centre | 298 | ||
| Box 6.3 Case study: Electronic interpretation | 306 | ||
| Box 6.4 Bird watching at Rutland Water Nature Reserve, England | 309 | ||
| Box 6.5 Role of the tour guide in natural area tourism | 313 | ||
| Box 6.6 Buchu Bushcamp: Interpreting the South African fynbos vegetation | 314 | ||
| Box 7.1 Applying a multiple indicator ratings system to monitoring campsites in Kibale National Park, Uganda | 340 | ||
| Box 7.2 A combined system for monitoring campsites in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA | 342 | ||
| Box 7.3 A rapid monitoring system for trails in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA | 348 | ||
| Box 7.4 Lidar as a remote sensing technique for trail inventory and monitoring | 350 | ||
| Box 7.5 Using questionnaires to monitor visitors to Bako National Park, Borneo | 362 | ||
| Box 7.6 Using a questionnaire to identify indicators and standards for Nuyts Wilderness Area, Western Australia | 364 | ||
| Box 7.7 Determining visitor satisfaction at Yanchep National Park, Western Australia, using a visitor questionnaire | 368 | ||
| Box 7.8 Using a task force to identify indicators and standards for Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana, USA | 370 | ||
| Box 7.9 State of the Parks reporting in New South Wales, Australia, using a protected area management effectiveness (PAME) assessment | 374 | ||
| Box 7.10 Developing an integrated monitoring programme for Warren National Park, Western Australia | 376 | ||
| Acknowledgements | xvii | ||
| Preface | xix | ||
| 1\tIntroduction | 1 | ||
| Tourism and the Natural Environment | 1 | ||
| Natural Areas as a Focus for Tourism | 3 | ||
| Nature and Naturalness | 4 | ||
| Human Approaches to Nature | 5 | ||
| Types of Natural Area | 7 | ||
| Tourism and Tourists | 8 | ||
| Defining Sustainable Tourism | 12 | ||
| Natural Area Tourism in Context | 13 | ||
| The Spectrum of Natural Area Tourism | 16 | ||
| Key Issues for Natural Area Tourism in the 21st Century | 31 | ||
| Outline of the Book | 37 | ||
| 2\tThe Ecological Perspective | 40 | ||
| Introduction | 40 | ||
| An Introduction to Ecosystems and Landscapes | 43 | ||
| Ecological Characteristics and Tourism Activity in Different Types of Ecosystem | 69 | ||
| Wildlife as a Specific Component of Ecosystems | 97 | ||
| Conclusion | 101 | ||
| 3\tEnvironmental Impacts | 104 | ||
| Introduction | 104 | ||
| Sources of Impact | 110 | ||
| Trampling | 114 | ||
| Access Roads and Trails | 125 | ||
| Use of Built Facilities and Camping Areas | 147 | ||
| Use of Water Edges | 159 | ||
| Recreation and Tourism in Mountainous Areas | 171 | ||
| Recreation and Tourism in and around Caves | 173 | ||
| The Observation of Wildlife | 178 | ||
| Wildflower Tourism | 184 | ||
| Recreation and Tourism Focused on Sites of Geological Interest | 186 | ||
| Social Impacts | 188 | ||
| The Impacts of Natural Area Tourism in the Context of Wider Environmental Issues | 190 | ||
| Conclusion | 199 | ||
| 4\tVisitor Planning | 201 | ||
| Introduction | 201 | ||
| Stakeholder Involvement in Visitor Planning | 205 | ||
| Planning Concepts | 208 | ||
| Recreation/Tourism Planning Frameworks | 211 | ||
| Conclusion | 239 | ||
| 5\tManagement Strategies and Actions | 241 | ||
| Introduction | 241 | ||
| Creating Protected Areas | 242 | ||
| Governance and Joint Management | 251 | ||
| Zoning | 254 | ||
| Site Management Actions | 256 | ||
| Visitor Management Actions | 270 | ||
| Choosing Management Actions | 278 | ||
| Managing the Tourism Industry | 284 | ||
| Conclusion | 292 | ||
| 6\tInterpretation for Nature Tourism | 294 | ||
| Introduction | 294 | ||
| Principles | 295 | ||
| Stages of the Interpretive Experience | 300 | ||
| Application of Interpretation | 302 | ||
| Techniques Used in the Delivery of Interpretation | 303 | ||
| The Role and Effectiveness of Interpretation | 315 | ||
| Enhancing and Valuing the Role of the Tour Guide: Some Important Issues | 319 | ||
| The Tour Operator as a Role Model | 320 | ||
| Views on the Effectiveness of Interpretation | 321 | ||
| Conclusion | 322 | ||
| 7\tMonitoring | 324 | ||
| Introduction | 324 | ||
| Definition | 324 | ||
| Reasons for Monitoring | 325 | ||
| Principles of Monitoring | 330 | ||
| Developing a Monitoring Programme | 332 | ||
| Monitoring Visitor Impacts on Natural Areas | 333 | ||
| Monitoring Visitors to Natural Areas | 354 | ||
| System-Wide and Integrated Approaches | 371 | ||
| Conclusion | 378 | ||
| 8\tConclusion | 380 | ||
| Introduction | 380 | ||
| The Ecological Underpinnings of Natural Area Tourism | 381 | ||
| Tourism’s Impacts on Natural Areas | 382 | ||
| Appropriate Planning and Management Strategies | 384 | ||
| Monitoring – The On-going Commitment to Natural Area Management | 385 | ||
| Interpretation – The Bridge Between Visitation and Connection | 386 | ||
| Big Picture Issues – Sustainability and Climate Change | 387 | ||
| Emerging Research Trends | 388 | ||
| References | 390 | ||
| Index | 441 |