Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1

Prof. Steven C. Ricke; Lisa K. Williams; Prof. Tom J. Humphrey; Dr Sabrina Vandeplas; Aishwarya Pradeep Rao; Jungsoo Joo; Dr Debabrata Biswas; Isaac P. Kashoma; Yosra A. Helmy; Issmat I. Kassem; Dr Gireesh Rajashekara; Navam S. Hettiarachchy; A. V. S. Perumalla; Prof. Steven C. Ricke; Estefania Novoa Rama; Dr Manpreet Singh; Dr Janne Lundén; Ana Luisa Renteria-Monterrubio; Dr Alma Delia Alarcon-Rojo; Prof. Ivar Vågsholm; Jun Lin; Sandra Diaz-Sanchez; Xiang Liu; Dr Irene Hanning; Prof. Michael A. Grashorn; Prof. M. S. Lilburn; Cheorun Jo; Dr Dinesh Jayasena; KiChang Nam; Eun Joo Lee; Prof. Dong Ahn; Yuan H. Brad Kim; Dr Iksoon Kang; Dr Arthur Hinton Jr; Dr Ilkka Leinonen; Hector E. Leyva-Jimenez; Prof. Christopher A. Bailey; E. J. Van Loo; R. Morawicki; D. Luján-Rhenals; Prof. Steven C. Ricke; Dr R. Michael Hulet; Robyn Alders; Prof. Robert Pym

BOOK

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1

(2016)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78676-067-8
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 502
Subjects: Agriculture & farming
Sustainable agriculture
Organic farming
Animal husbandry
Poultry farming
Smallholdings

Abstract

To meet growing demand, the FAO has estimated that world poultry production needs to grow by 2-3% per year to 2030. Much of the increase in output already achieved has been as a result of improvements in commercial breeds combined with rearing in more intensive production systems. However, more intensive systems and complex supply chains have increased the risk of rapid transmission of animal diseases and zoonoses. Consumer expectations of sensory and nutritional quality have never been higher. At the same time consumers are more concerned about the environmental impact of poultry production as well as animal welfare.
Drawing on an international range of expertise, this book reviews research on safety, quality and sustainability issues in poultry production. Part 1 discusses risks from pathogens, detection and safety management on farms and in slaughterhouse operations. Part 2 looks at ways of enhancing the flavour, colour, texture and nutritional quality of poultry meat. Finally, the book reviews the environmental impact of poultry production.
Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1: Safety, quality and sustainability will be a standard reference for poultry and food scientists in universities, government and other research centres and companies involved in poultry production. It is accompanied by two further volumes which review poultry breeding, nutrition, health and welfare.
"This is a timely book that provides not only a valuable account of modern food safety management in poultry production and processing, and enhancement of product quality, but also covers the key elements of sustainable production systems for a world now seriously threatened by climate change. With its appropriate international scope, Professor Ricke’s book will make a major contribution to this important subject and become essential reading for all those concerned."
Geoffrey Mead, Emeritus Professor, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, UK
"Needless to say, such a book is timely as it provides a valuable account of modern food safety management in poultry processing, coupled with the key elements of sustainable production systems."
Poultry Production

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Drawing on an international range of expertise, this book reviews research on safety, quality and sustainability issues in poultry production. Part 1 discusses risks from pathogens, detection and safety management on farms and in slaughterhouse operations. Part 2 looks at ways of enhancing the flavour, colour, texture and nutritional quality of poultry meat. Finally, the book reviews the environmental impact of poultry production and ways it can be minimised.

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1: Safety, quality and sustainability will be a standard reference for poultry and food scientists in universities, government and other research centres and companies involved in poultry production. It is accompanied by two further volumes which review poultry breeding, nutrition, health and welfare.

"Needless to say, such a book is timely as it provides a valuable account of modern food safety management in poultry processing, coupled with the key elements of sustainable production systems." - Poultry Production

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Contents	v
Series list	xii
Acknowledgements	xvi
Introduction	xvii
Poultry meat safety	xvii
Poultry meat quality	xx
Sustainability	xxi
Summary	xxii
Part 1 Poultry meat safety	1
Chapter 1 Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Campylobacter	3
1 Introduction	3
2 Campylobacter in poultry	4
3 Control measures in poultry	5
4 Campylobacter as a pathogen rather than a commensal of poultry	6
5 Conclusions	10
6 Future trends	10
7 Where to look for further information	10
8 References	11
Chapter 2 Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case \nof Salmonella	17
1 Introduction	17
2 Salmonella microorganisms and their invasion mechanism	19
2.1 A description of Salmonella	19
2.2 Salmonella serotypes	19
2.3 Other proposed mechanisms of infection	20
2.3.1 Invasion	20
2.3.2 Interaction with the immune system	21
2.3.3 Effect on metabolism	23
2.3.4 Interaction with the microbiota	23
2.4 Antibiotic resistance	24
3 Salmonella transmission in poultry	24
3.1 Factors affecting poultry colonization	24
3.2 Poultry flock prevalence	25
3.3 Mode of transmission	25
3.3.1 Vertical transmission	26
3.3.2 Horizontal transmission	26
4 Detection methods	26
4.1 The importance of sampling	27
4.2 Detection methods	27
4.3 Method improvement	28
5 Strategies to control Salmonella in poultry: \noverview of pre- and post-harvest strategies	29
5.1 Post-harvest control strategies	30
5.2 Pre-harvest control strategies	30
6 Strategies to control Salmonella in poultry: managing the environment, diet and immune responses \nof poultry	31
6.1 Keeping the environment Salmonella free	31
6.2 Optimizing diet formulation	31
6.3 Improving the immune response	32
7 Strategies to control Salmonella in poultry: controlling the environment inside chicken	33
7.1 Modifying chicken environment	33
7.2 Modulating the microflora	34
7.3 Recently developed strategies	36
8 Concluding remarks	38
9 Where to look for further information	38
10 References	39
Chapter 3 Safety management on the poultry farm	49
1 Introduction	49
2 Safety practice in hatching and transport \nof chicks, sources and breeders	50
2.1 Breed/strain of parent flock	50
2.2 Quality of feed, water and housing of flock	51
2.3 Vaccination, age and health performance of parent flock	51
2.4 Size, weight, nutritional content and shell of egg	51
2.5 Collection, disinfection, storage and transportation \nof eggs to the hatching facility	51
2.6 Managing the hatching facility and hatch	52
3 Farm safety issues and recommendations \nfor managers	52
3.1 Worker/personnel safety management	52
3.2 Farm environmental safety management	53
3.3 Wild animal and bird infiltration management	53
3.4 Pest control	54
3.5 Housing, cleaning practices and disease control	56
3.6 Management of feed quality and safety	56
3.7 Water safety and risk management	57
3.8 Regular maintenance and record-keeping	57
4 Farm biosecurity management	57
4.1 Health monitoring and disease prevention	58
Poultry infectious disease control	58
Viral infection	58
Bacterial infection	59
Parasitic infection	59
4.2 Litter and carcass management	59
4.3 Training and emergency preparedness	60
5 Regulatory acts, enforcement and monitoring	60
5.1 SPS measures	60
5.2 SOPs and SSOPs	61
5.3 The HACCP system	61
6 Conclusions	63
7 Where to look for further information	63
8 Acknowledgements	63
9 References	64
Chapter 4 The emergence of antibiotic resistance in poultry farms	67
1 Introduction: current poultry farming and the \nuse of antibiotics	67
2 The different applications of antibiotics \nin poultry farming	69
2.1 Antibiotic therapy in animal farming	70
2.2 Growth promotion	70
2.3 Metaphylaxis and prophylaxis	71
3 Human health risks associated with antibiotic \nuse in poultry farming	72
4 Examples of antibiotic-resistant food-borne pathogens associated with poultry	74
4.1 Campylobacter	75
4.2 Salmonella	76
5 Regulations, recommendations and future trends	77
6 Where to look for further information	79
7 References	80
Chapter 5 Alternatives to antibiotics in preventing zoonoses and other pathogens in poultry: prebiotics and related compounds	87
1 Introduction	87
2 Beneficial effects of prebiotics: general mechanisms of action	89
3 Non-digestible carbohydrates as prebiotics	89
4 Fructooligosaccharides	90
5 Yeast-derived components and mannan derivatives \nas pro- and prebiotics	92
6 Galactooligosaccharide and isomaltooligosaccharide	94
7 Guar gum as a potential prebiotic source	95
8 Synbiotics: combining pre- and probiotics for enhanced nutritional supplements	96
9 Summary and conclusions	98
10 Where to look for further information	99
11 References	99
Chapter 6 Safety management and pathogen monitoring in poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case of the United States	109
1 Introduction: food safety concerns in poultry processing	109
2 Common foodborne pathogens associated with poultry	110
2.1 Salmonella spp.	111
2.2 Campylobacter jejuni	111
2.3 Listeria monocytogenes	112
2.4 Clostridium perfringens	112
2.5 Staphylococcus aureus	113
3 Effects of processing operations on carcass contamination: from live transportation to carcass washing	113
3.1 Live transportation and handling	113
3.2 Stunning and bleeding	114
3.3 Scalding	115
3.4 Defeathering	115
3.5 Evisceration	116
3.6 Crop removal	116
3.7 Washing	116
4 Effects of processing operations on carcass contamination: chilling and post-chill processing	117
4.1 Chilling	117
4.1.1 Immersion chilling	117
4.1.2 Air chilling	118
4.2 Post-chilling processing	118
5 Regulatory standards for food safety management during poultry slaughter	119
6 GMP and the HACCP system	122
6.1 GMPs-HACCP prerequisites	122
6.1.1 Establishment grounds and facilities	123
6.1.2 Equipment and utensils	124
6.1.3 Employee hygiene	124
6.1.4 Cleaning and sanitation	125
6.1.5 Pest control	125
6.2 The HACCP system	125
7 Antimicrobial treatments used in poultry slaughter: chemical and biological treatments	126
7.1 Chemical treatments	126
7.1.1 Chlorine-based treatments	126
7.1.2 Acidified sodium chlorite	127
7.1.3 Trisodium phosphate	127
7.1.4 Organic acids	127
7.2 Biological treatments	128
8 Antimicrobial treatments used in poultry slaughter: physical treatments	128
8.1 Immersion chilling	129
8.2 Air chilling	129
8.3 Hot water and steam	130
8.4 Electrolyzed water	130
8.5 Ozone processing	130
8.6 Irradiation	130
9 Assessing the efficacy of pathogen reduction systems: microbial testing	131
10 Conclusions	132
11 Where to look for further information	133
12 References	133
Chapter 7 Inspection techniques for poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case \nof the European Union	141
1 Introduction	141
2 Goals and prerequisites of poultry slaughterhouse inspections	142
2.1 Verifying compliance and facilitating business	142
2.2 Prerequisites for high-quality inspections	142
3 The frequency and focus of food safety inspections	143
4 Inspection techniques and documentation of inspection results	145
4.1 Interviewing personnel	146
4.2 Review of self-inspection documentation	146
4.3 Review of internet presence	147
4.4 Observation of facilities and operations	147
4.5 Ability testing	148
4.6 Inspection of the written self-inspection plan	148
4.7 Cross-inspection	148
4.8 Sampling and measurements	149
4.9 Documentation and disclosure of the inspection results	149
5 Observing and responding to non-compliance in poultry slaughterhouses	149
5.1 Observed non-compliance in poultry slaughterhouses	149
5.2 Actions taken by official veterinarians (OVs) due to non-compliance	150
6 Summary	152
7 Future trends in research	153
8 Where to look for further information	153
9 References	153
Chapter 8 Ensuring safety in chilling and freezing \nof poultry meat	157
1 Introduction	157
2 Chilling for poultry meat preservation	158
3 Other post-slaughter interventions for the decontamination and preservation of poultry meat	159
4 Review of important poultry pathogens and their response to control measures	161
5 Summary and conclusions	162
6 Future directions and research needs	163
7 Where to look for further information	165
8 References	165
Chapter 9 Case studies in food safety control in the production of fresh poultry meat: effective control of Salmonella in Sweden	173
1 Introduction	173
2 The history of Salmonella control in Sweden	174
2.1 The Alvesta outbreak and its consequences	174
2.2 History and evolution of the control programme	175
2.3 The European Union and Salmonella protection guarantees	175
2.4 Increasing imports and increasing control costs	176
2.5 Evaluations of the Swedish Salmonella control system	176
2.6 The 2010 national comprehensive Salmonella control programme	177
3 The current Salmonella control system: preventing and eliminating feed contamination	177
3.1 Salmonella originating from feed – a driver for \nHACCP-based controls	177
3.2 HACCP-based Salmonella control in feed	178
Raw feed material	178
The process control of feed production	179
Future challenges to Salmonella control in feed production	180
4 The current Salmonella control system: Salmonella \ncontrol in broilers	180
4.1 Compulsory Salmonella surveillance programme	180
4.2 Measures implemented when Salmonella is found	182
Clean-up costs – a driver for the evolution of the programme	182
Alternatives to stamping out	182
4.3 The voluntary biosecurity programme for poultry flocks	183
5 The current Salmonella control system: Salmonella monitoring and control during and after harvest	184
5.1 Salmonella monitoring of abattoirs and cutting plants	184
5.2 Salmonella control in food post-harvest	184
6 Summary and critical comments	185
7 Future trends in research	186
8 Where to look for further information	186
9 References	187
Chapter 10 Food safety control on poultry farms: effective control of Campylobacter	193
1 Introduction	193
2 Campylobacter: general features and epidemiology	194
3 Improving biosecurity in the farm	195
4 Antimicrobial therapy and increased host resistance	196
5 Boosting the immune response	197
6 DNA vaccines	199
7 Conclusions	200
8 Acknowledgements	201
9 Where to look for further information	201
10 References	201
Part 2 Poultry meat quality	207
Chapter 11 Poultry meat quality: an overview	209
1 Introduction	209
2 The nutritive value of poultry meat: description, assessment and improvement	210
3 Important physical and functional properties \nof poultry meat	215
3.1 Physical properties	215
3.2 Functional properties	224
4 Poultry meat shelf-life	225
5 Sensory assessment of poultry meat	226
6 Conclusions	228
7 Where to look for further information	228
8 References	229
Chapter 12 Enhancing the nutritional quality \nof poultry meat	233
1 Introduction	233
2 Selection for growth and feed efficiency	234
3 Understanding lipid metabolism and carcass \nlipid deposition	235
4 Nutritional enrichment of poultry meat to increase polyunsaturated fat content	236
5 Reducing tissue lipid oxidation	240
6 Summary	242
7 Where to look for further information	243
8 References	243
Chapter 13 Enhancing the flavour of poultry meat	249
1 Introduction	249
2 The chemistry of poultry meat flavour	250
3 Flavour precursors of poultry meat	251
3.1 Lipid-derived flavour compounds	253
3.2 Flavour compounds from the Maillard reaction	253
3.3 Flavour compounds from lipid-Maillard interactions	255
3.4 Heterocyclic compounds in poultry meat flavour	256
4 Factors influencing the formation of flavour and \noff-flavour in poultry meat	256
5 Strategies for preserving or enhancing the flavour \nof poultry meat	260
5.1 Breed/strain of chicken	260
5.2 Lipid class and fatty acid composition	261
5.3 Intramuscular contents of amino acids and nucleotides	261
5.4 Diet	262
5.5 Production system	263
5.6 Ageing	264
5.7 Cooking	264
5.8 Irradiation	265
5.9 High pressure treatment	265
5.10 Additives	265
6 Summary	266
7 Where to look for further information	266
8 References	267
Chapter 14 The colour of poultry meat: understanding, measuring and maintaining product quality	273
1 Introduction	273
2 Meat pigments	274
2.1 Overview	274
2.2 Chemistry of haem pigments	274
3 The colour of fresh poultry meat	276
3.1 Fresh meat pigment	276
3.2 Metmyoglobin reduction	277
3.3 Discolouration	278
3.4 Lipid and myoglobin oxidation	279
3.5 Blood spots and white striping	279
4 The colour of cooked poultry meat	280
4.1 Cooked meat pigments	280
4.2 Discolouration during cooking	280
4.3 Pink colour defect	281
5 The colour of cured poultry meat	282
6 The colour of irradiated poultry meat	282
7 Objective colour measurement for meat products	283
8 Conclusions	284
9 Where to look for further information	285
10 References	285
Chapter 15 Enhancing texture and tenderness in poultry meat	291
1 Introduction	291
2 Post-mortem pH decline and rigor development	292
3 Carcass chilling and muscle tenderness	294
4 Pale, soft and exudative meat	295
5 The crust-freeze air-chilling technique	298
6 Meat tenderness via enzymatic activity	302
7 Mechanical tenderization	305
8 Muscle tensioning for improved tenderness	306
9 Electrical stimulation of poultry carcasses	308
10 Marination for improved tenderness	309
11 Conclusions	313
12 Where to look for further information	314
13 References	314
Chapter 16 Preventing spoilage of poultry meat	321
1 Introduction	321
2 Spoilage microorganisms	322
3 Extending the shelf-life of poultry meat: vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)	325
3.1 Vacuum packaging	325
3.2 Modified atmosphere packaging	326
4 Extending the shelf-life of poultry meat: bacteriocins, herbs and spices	328
4.1 Bacteriocins	328
4.2 Herbs and spices	328
5 Extending the shelf-life of poultry meat: high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) and electrolyzed water	329
5.1 High hydrostatic pressure	329
5.2 Electrolyzed water	330
6 Irradiation, non-thermal plasma and oxygen absorbers	331
7 Where to look for further information	332
8 References	332
Part 3 Sustainability	337
Chapter 17 Life cycle assessment (LCA) of intensive poultry production systems	339
1 Introduction	339
2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) of poultry production: general	340
3 The main environmental impacts of intensive \npoultry production	341
4 Reducing environmental impacts: feed consumption and composition	344
5 Reducing environmental impacts: breeding, \nhousing and manure management	348
6 Summary	350
7 Future trends	351
8 Where to look for further information	352
9 References	353
Chapter 18 Minimizing the environmental impact of poultry production through improved \nfeed formulation	357
1 Introduction	357
2 Environmental impact of livestock and poultry production	358
2.1 Environmental impact of livestock and poultry waste in soil and water	359
2.2 Environmental impact of livestock and poultry waste \nin air quality	360
3 Strategies to reduce the environmental impact of poultry production through improved feed formulation and manufacturing	361
4 Nutrient uniformity, particle size and pelleting	361
4.1 Effect of particle size and pelleting in performance and nutrient utilization	362
5 Optimizing nutrient density and multiphase feeding	364
5.1 Multiphase feeding	366
6 Exogenous enzymes as feed additives	369
7 Use of phytase to reduce phosphorus pollution	372
8 Prebiotics and probiotics as feed additives	373
9 Antibiotics and coccidiostat growth promoters \nin poultry feeds	375
10 Summary and future trends	377
11 Where to look for further information	378
Poultry production information and statistics	378
Important scientific journals	379
Environmental impact of poultry farms and nutritional strategies to reduce the environmental impact	379
12 References	379
Chapter 19 Energy and water use in poultry processing	389
1 Introduction	389
2 The potential for life cycle assessment (LCA) \nof poultry processing systems	390
3 The current status of poultry production \nand processing	391
4 Conventional poultry slaughter processing plants	392
4.1 Pre-slaughtering	392
4.2 Slaughtering	393
4.3 Scalding and defeathering	393
4.4 Evisceration	394
4.5 Washing and chilling	394
4.6 Packaging and storage	395
5 The use of energy in poultry processing plants	395
5.1 Electricity	396
5.2 Fossil energy	397
6 The use of water in poultry plants	397
6.1 Water uses	398
6.2 Wastewater and reuse	399
7 Non-conventional poultry processing	400
8 Conclusions and recommendations	402
9 Where to look for further information	402
10 References	403
Chapter 20 Waste management and emissions in poultry processing	411
1 Introduction	411
2 Treatment of by-products and waste	412
2.1 Incineration	412
2.2 Rendering	413
2.3 Alkaline hydrolysis	414
2.4 Wastewater treatment	414
3 Environmental impact of processing plant emissions	415
3.1 General concepts	415
3.2 Emissions from refrigeration	415
3.3 Odour control	416
4 Solid wastes	417
4.1 Blood	418
4.2 Feathers	418
4.3 Carcasses (condemnations) and offals	420
5 Future directions	420
6 Conclusions and recommendations	422
7 Where to look for further information	423
8 References	424
Chapter 21 Organic systems for raising poultry	433
1 Introduction	433
2 Bird housing for organic egg and meat production	434
3 Nutrient management for organic poultry farming	435
4 Nutrition for organically raised poultry	435
5 Managing bird health in organic flocks	436
6 Food safety in organic poultry production	437
7 Processing and marketing	438
8 Summary	438
9 Where to look for further information	438
10 References	439
Chapter 22 Helping smallholders to improve poultry production	441
1 Introduction	441
2 Types of smallholder poultry production systems	442
2.1 Small- to medium-scale extensive scavenging \nsystems (i) and (ii)	443
2.2 Semi-intensive and small-scale intensive production \nsystems (iii) and (iv)	446
3 Development objectives for family poultry production	447
4 Preventing disease in poultry	448
4.1 Lack of robust data on the prevalence of key \ninfectious diseases	449
4.2 Options for the sustainable prevention of infectious \ndisease in poultry	449
4.3 Achieving efficient control of poultry diseases	450
4.4 Non-communicable disease and health	451
4.5 Food safety	451
5 Breeding and genetics	451
6 Husbandry and nutrition	453
7 Marketing and economics	455
7.1 Access to credit and microfinance	455
7.2 Marketing and value chain development	456
8 Education and training	457
8.1 Why training and extension is vital	457
8.2 What are the characteristics of effective extension \nand training?	458
8.3 Who should implement the extension and \ntraining activities?	458
9 Strengthening policy environments	458
9.1 Key elements of a facilitating policy environment	458
9.2 Building multisectoral collaboration in support of food \nand nutrition security	459
10 Case study 1: improving small-scale poultry production in Myanmar	459
11 Case study 2: contribution of village chickens\nto diets in Tanzania and Zambia	461
12 Acknowledgements	462
13 Future trends	462
14 Where to look for further information	464
Review articles:	464
Seminal articles and monographs:	464
Key societies, associations and organizations:	464
Key journals and conferences:	465
Major international research projects:	465
Research centres focused on smallholder poultry production:	465
15 References	465
Index	473

Achieving sustainable production of poultry meat Volume 1

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