BOOK
Biological Science, Global Edition
Scott Freeman | Kim Quillin | Lizabeth Allison | Michael Black | Emily Taylor | Author
(2017)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
For introductory courses for biology majors.
Uniquely engages biology students in active learning, scientific thinking, and skill development.
Scott Freeman’s Biological Science is beloved for its Socratic narrative style, its emphasis on experimental evidence, and its dedication to active learning. Science education research indicates that true mastery of content requires a move away from memorization towards active engagement with the material in a focused, personal way. Biological Science is designed to equip students with strategies to assess their level of understanding and identify the types of cognitive skills that need improvement.
With the Sixth Edition, content has been streamlined with an emphasis on core concepts and core competencies from the Vision and Change in Undergraduate Biology Education report. The text’s unique BioSkills section is now placed after Chapter 1 to help students develop key skills needed to become a scientist, new “Making Models” boxes guide learners in interpreting and creating models, and new “Put It all Together” case studies conclude each chapter and help students see connections between chapter content and current, real-world research questions. New, engaging content includes updated coverage of global climate change, advances in genomic editing, and recent insights into the evolution of land plants.
MasteringBiology™ not included. Students, if MasteringBiology is a recommended/mandatory component of the course, please ask your instructor for the correct ISBN and course ID. MasteringBiology should only be purchased when required by an instructor. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information.
MasteringBiology is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment product designed to personalize learning and improve results. With a wide range of interactive, engaging, and assignable activities, students are encouraged to actively learn and retain tough course concepts.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Brief Contents | IFC-1 | ||
| Title Page | 15 | ||
| Copyright Page | 16 | ||
| Detailed Contents | 17 | ||
| 1 Biology and the Tree of Life | 45 | ||
| 1.1 What Does It Mean to Say That Something Is Alive? | 46 | ||
| 1.2 Life Is Cellular | 46 | ||
| All Organisms Are Made of Cells | 46 | ||
| Where Do Cells Come From? | 47 | ||
| Life Replicates Through Cell Division | 48 | ||
| 1.3 Life Evolves | 48 | ||
| What Is Evolution? | 48 | ||
| What Is Natural Selection? | 48 | ||
| 1.4 Life Processes Information | 49 | ||
| The Central Dogma | 49 | ||
| Life Requires Energy | 50 | ||
| 1.5 The Tree of Life | 50 | ||
| Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life | 50 | ||
| How Should We Name Branches on the Tree of Life? | 52 | ||
| 1.6 Doing Biology | 53 | ||
| The Nature of Science | 53 | ||
| Why Do Giraffes Have Long Necks? an Introduction to Hypothesis Testing | 53 | ||
| How Do Ants Navigate? An Introduction to Experimental Design | 55 | ||
| Chapter Review | 58 | ||
| Big Picture Doing Biology | 60 | ||
| BioSkills | 62 | ||
| B.1 Using the Metric System and Significant Figures | 63 | ||
| Metric System Units and Conversions | 63 | ||
| Significant Figures | 64 | ||
| B.2 Reading and Making Graphs | 65 | ||
| Getting Started | 65 | ||
| Types of Graphs | 67 | ||
| Getting Practice | 67 | ||
| B.3 Interpreting Standard Error Bars and Using Statistical Tests | 68 | ||
| Standard Error Bars | 68 | ||
| Using Statistical Tests | 69 | ||
| Interpreting P Values and Statistical Significance | 69 | ||
| B.4 Working with Probabilities | 70 | ||
| The Both-And Rule | 70 | ||
| The Either-Or Rule | 70 | ||
| B.5 Using Logarithms | 71 | ||
| B.6 Separating and Visualizing Molecules | 72 | ||
| Using Electrophoresis to Separate Molecules | 72 | ||
| Using Thin Layer Chromatography to Separate Molecules | 73 | ||
| Visualizing Molecules | 73 | ||
| B.7 Separating Cell Components by Centrifugation | 75 | ||
| B.8 Using Spectrophotometry | 77 | ||
| B.9 Using Microscopy | 77 | ||
| Light and Fluorescence Microscopy | 77 | ||
| Electron Microscopy | 78 | ||
| Studying Live Cells and Real-Time Processes | 79 | ||
| Visualizing Cellular Structures in 3-D | 79 | ||
| B.10 Using Molecular Biology Tools and Techniques | 80 | ||
| Making and Using DNA Libraries | 80 | ||
| Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) | 81 | ||
| Dideoxy Sequencing | 82 | ||
| Shotgun Sequencing | 83 | ||
| DNA Microarray | 84 | ||
| B.11 Using Cell Culture and Model Organisms as Tools | 85 | ||
| Cell and Tissue Culture Methods | 85 | ||
| Model Organisms | 86 | ||
| B.12 Reading and Making Visual Models | 89 | ||
| Tips for Interpreting Models | 89 | ||
| Tips for Making your Own Models | 90 | ||
| Concept Maps | 90 | ||
| B.13 Reading and Making Phylogenetic Trees | 91 | ||
| Anatomy of a Phylogenetic Tree | 91 | ||
| How to Read a Phylogenetic Tree | 92 | ||
| How to Draw a Phylogenetic Tree | 92 | ||
| B.14 Reading Chemical Structures | 93 | ||
| B.15 Translating Greek and Latin Roots in Biology | 94 | ||
| B.16 Reading and Citing the Primary Literature | 94 | ||
| What Is the Primary Literature? | 94 | ||
| Getting Started | 94 | ||
| Citing Sources | 96 | ||
| Getting Practice | 96 | ||
| B.17 Recognizing and Correcting Misconceptions | 96 | ||
| B.18 Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Study Success | 97 | ||
| Categories of Human Cognition | 97 | ||
| Six Study Steps to Success | 97 | ||
| Unit 1 The Molecular Origin and Evolution of Life | 99 | ||
| 2 Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life | 99 | ||
| 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution | 100 | ||
| Basic Atomic Structure | 100 | ||
| How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together? | 102 | ||
| Ionic Bonding, Ions, and the Electron-sharing Continuum | 103 | ||
| Some Simple Molecules Formed from C, H, N, and O | 104 | ||
| The Geometry of Simple Molecules | 104 | ||
| Representing Molecules | 104 | ||
| 2.2 Properties of Water and the Early Oceans | 105 | ||
| Why Is Water Such an Efficient Solvent? | 106 | ||
| What Properties Are Correlated with Water’s Structure? | 106 | ||
| The Role of Water in Acid–Base Chemical Reactions | 109 | ||
| 2.3 Chemical Reactions, Energy, and Chemical Evolution | 111 | ||
| How Do Chemical Reactions Happen? | 111 | ||
| What Is Energy? | 112 | ||
| What Makes a Chemical Reaction Spontaneous? | 112 | ||
| 2.4 Model Systems for Investigating Chemical Evolution | 114 | ||
| Early Origin-of-Life Experiments | 114 | ||
| Recent Origin-of-Life Experiments | 115 | ||
| 2.5 The Importance of Organic Molecules | 117 | ||
| Linking Carbon Atoms Together | 117 | ||
| Functional Groups | 119 | ||
| Chapter Review | 119 | ||
| 3 Protein Structure and Function | 122 | ||
| 3.1 Amino Acids and Their Polymerization | 123 | ||
| The Structure of Amino Acids | 123 | ||
| The Nature of Side Chains | 123 | ||
| How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins? | 125 | ||
| 3.2 What Do Proteins Look Like? | 127 | ||
| Primary Structure | 128 | ||
| Secondary Structure | 129 | ||
| Tertiary Structure | 130 | ||
| Quaternary Structure | 131 | ||
| 3.3 Folding and Function | 132 | ||
| Normal Folding Is Crucial to Function | 132 | ||
| Protein Shape Is Flexible | 133 | ||
| 3.4 Protein Functions Are as Diverse as Protein Structures | 134 | ||
| Why Are Enzymes Good Catalysts? | 134 | ||
| Did Life Arise from a Self-Replicating Enzyme? | 135 | ||
| Chapter Review | 135 | ||
| 4 Nucleic Acids and the RNA World | 137 | ||
| 4.1 What Is a Nucleic Acid? | 138 | ||
| Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of Nucleotides? | 139 | ||
| How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids? | 139 | ||
| 4.2 DNA Structure and Function | 141 | ||
| What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure? | 141 | ||
| The Tertiary Structure of DNA | 143 | ||
| Dna Functions as an Information-Containing Molecule | 143 | ||
| The DNA Double Helix Is a Stable Structure | 144 | ||
| 4.3 RNA Structure and Function | 145 | ||
| Structurally, RNA Differs from DNA | 145 | ||
| RNA’s Versatility | 146 | ||
| RNA Can Function as a Catalytic Molecule | 146 | ||
| 4.4 In Search of the First Life-Form | 147 | ||
| How Biologists Study the RNA World | 148 | ||
| The RNA World May Have Sparked the Evolution of Life | 148 | ||
| Chapter Review | 149 | ||
| 5 An Introduction to Carbohydrates | 151 | ||
| 5.1 Sugars as Monomers | 152 | ||
| What Distinguishes One Monosaccharide from Another? | 152 | ||
| Can Monosaccharides Form by Chemical Evolution? | 153 | ||
| 5.2 The Structure of Polysaccharides | 154 | ||
| Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants | 155 | ||
| Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in Animals | 155 | ||
| Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants | 157 | ||
| Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Fungi and Animals | 157 | ||
| Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria | 157 | ||
| Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution | 157 | ||
| 5.3 What Do Carbohydrates Do? | 157 | ||
| Carbohydrates Can Provide Structural Support | 158 | ||
| The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity | 158 | ||
| Carbohydrates and Energy Storage | 159 | ||
| Chapter Review | 161 | ||
| 6 Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells | 163 | ||
| 6.1 Lipid Structure and Function | 164 | ||
| How Does Bond Saturation Affect Hydrocarbon Structure? | 164 | ||
| A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells | 165 | ||
| How Membrane Lipids Interact with Water | 166 | ||
| Were Lipids Present During Chemical Evolution? | 167 | ||
| 6.2 Phospholipid Bilayers | 167 | ||
| Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System | 168 | ||
| Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers | 168 | ||
| How Does Lipid Structure Affect Membrane Permeability? | 169 | ||
| How Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes? | 170 | ||
| 6.3 How Substances Move Across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis | 171 | ||
| Diffusion | 171 | ||
| Osmosis | 172 | ||
| Membranes and Chemical Evolution | 173 | ||
| 6.4 Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and Function | 174 | ||
| Development of the Fluid-mosaic Model | 174 | ||
| Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins | 176 | ||
| Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion | 176 | ||
| Carrier Proteins Facilitate Diffusion | 178 | ||
| Pumps Perform Active Transport | 179 | ||
| Plasma Membranes Define the Intracellular Environment | 181 | ||
| Chapter Review | 182 | ||
| Big Picture The Chemistry of Life | 184 | ||
| Unit 2 Cell Structure and Function | 186 | ||
| 7 Inside the Cell | 186 | ||
| 7.1 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and Their Functions | 187 | ||
| A Revolutionary New View | 187 | ||
| Prokaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List | 187 | ||
| 7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions | 190 | ||
| The Benefits of Organelles | 190 | ||
| Eukaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List | 190 | ||
| 7.3 Putting the Parts into a Whole | 198 | ||
| Structure and Function at the Whole-Cell Level | 198 | ||
| The Dynamic Cell | 198 | ||
| 7.4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport | 199 | ||
| Structure and Function of the Nuclear Envelope | 199 | ||
| How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus? | 200 | ||
| 7.5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo | 201 | ||
| Studying the Pathway through the Endomembrane System | 201 | ||
| Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis | 203 | ||
| Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus | 204 | ||
| What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus? | 204 | ||
| How Do Proteins Reach Their Destinations? | 204 | ||
| Recycling Material in the Lysosome | 204 | ||
| 7.6 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton | 207 | ||
| Actin Filaments | 207 | ||
| Intermediate Filaments | 208 | ||
| Microtubules | 208 | ||
| Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell | 210 | ||
| Chapter Review | 212 | ||
| 8 Energy and Enzymes: An Introduction to Metabolism | 215 | ||
| 8.1 What Happens to Energy in Chemical Reactions? | 216 | ||
| Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Transformations | 216 | ||
| Temperature and Concentration Affect Reaction Rates | 217 | ||
| 8.2 Nonspontaneous Reactions May Be Driven Using Chemical Energy | 219 | ||
| Redox Reactions Transfer Energy via Electrons | 219 | ||
| ATP Transfers Energy via Phosphate Groups | 221 | ||
| 8.3 How Enzymes Work | 223 | ||
| Enzymes Help Reactions Clear Two Hurdles | 223 | ||
| What Limits the Rate of Catalysis? | 225 | ||
| Do Enzymes Work Alone? | 226 | ||
| 8.4 What Factors Affect Enzyme Function? | 226 | ||
| Enzymes Are Optimized for Particular Environments | 226 | ||
| Most Enzymes Are Regulated | 227 | ||
| 8.5 Enzymes Can Work Together in Metabolic Pathways | 228 | ||
| Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated | 229 | ||
| Metabolic Pathways Evolve | 229 | ||
| Chapter Review | 230 | ||
| 9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation | 233 | ||
| 9.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration | 234 | ||
| What Happens When Glucose Is Oxidized? | 234 | ||
| Cellular Respiration Plays a Central Role in Metabolism | 236 | ||
| 9.2 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate | 237 | ||
| Glycolysis Is a Sequence of 10 Reactions | 237 | ||
| How Is Glycolysis Regulated? | 238 | ||
| 9.3 Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA | 240 | ||
| 9.4 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidizing Acetyl CoA to CO2 | 241 | ||
| How Is the Citric Acid Cycle Regulated? | 241 | ||
| What Happens to the NADH and FADH2? | 243 | ||
| 9.5 Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: Building a Proton Gradient to Produce ATP | 244 | ||
| The Electron Transport Chain | 245 | ||
| The Discovery of ATP Synthase | 247 | ||
| The Chemiosmosis Hypothesis | 247 | ||
| Organisms Use a Diversity of Electron Acceptors | 249 | ||
| 9.6 Fermentation | 250 | ||
| Many Different Fermentation Pathways Exist | 250 | ||
| Fermentation as an Alternative to Cellular Respiration | 251 | ||
| Chapter Review | 252 | ||
| 10 Photosynthesis | 254 | ||
| 10.1 Photosynthesis Harnesses Sunlight to Make Carbohydrate | 255 | ||
| Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions | 255 | ||
| Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts | 256 | ||
| 10.2 How Do Pigments Capture Light Energy? | 257 | ||
| Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light | 257 | ||
| When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State | 260 | ||
| 10.3 The Discovery of Photosystems I and II | 262 | ||
| How Does Photosystem II Work? | 262 | ||
| How Does Photosystem I Work? | 264 | ||
| The Z Scheme: Photosystems II and I Work Together | 265 | ||
| 10.4 How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Sugars? | 267 | ||
| The Calvin Cycle Fixes Carbon | 267 | ||
| The Discovery of Rubisco | 269 | ||
| How Is Photosynthesis Regulated? | 270 | ||
| Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Pass Through Stomata | 271 | ||
| Mechanisms for Increasing CO2 Concentration | 271 | ||
| What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis? | 273 | ||
| Chapter Review | 274 | ||
| Big Picture Energy for Life | 276 | ||
| 11 Cell–Cell Interactions | 278 | ||
| 11.1 The Cell Surface | 279 | ||
| The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer | 279 | ||
| The Extracellular Matrix in Animals | 279 | ||
| The Cell Wall in Plants | 280 | ||
| 11.2 How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate? | 282 | ||
| Cell–Cell Attachments in Multicellular Eukaryotes | 282 | ||
| Cells Communicate via Cell–Cell Gaps | 285 | ||
| 11.3 How Do Distant Cells Communicate? | 287 | ||
| Cell–Cell Signaling in Multicellular Organisms | 287 | ||
| Signal Reception | 287 | ||
| Signal Processing | 288 | ||
| Signal Response | 292 | ||
| Signal Deactivation | 292 | ||
| Crosstalk: Synthesizing Input from Many Signals | 292 | ||
| 11.4 Signaling between Unicellular Organisms | 293 | ||
| Chapter Review | 294 | ||
| 12 The Cell Cycle | 297 | ||
| 12.1 How Do Cells Replicate? | 298 | ||
| What Is a Chromosome? | 298 | ||
| Cells Alternate between M Phase and Interphase | 299 | ||
| The Discovery of S Phase | 299 | ||
| The Discovery of the Gap Phases | 299 | ||
| The Cell Cycle | 300 | ||
| 12.2 What Happens during M Phase? | 301 | ||
| Events in Mitosis | 301 | ||
| How Do Chromosomes Move during Anaphase? | 304 | ||
| Cytokinesis Results in Two Daughter Cells | 306 | ||
| Bacterial Cell Replication | 306 | ||
| 12.3 Control of the Cell Cycle | 307 | ||
| The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules | 307 | ||
| Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Arrest the Cell Cycle | 309 | ||
| 12.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division | 310 | ||
| Properties of Cancer Cells | 311 | ||
| Cancer Involves Loss of Cell-Cycle Control | 311 | ||
| Chapter Review | 313 | ||
| Unit 3 Gene Structure and Expression | 315 | ||
| 13 Meiosis | 315 | ||
| 13.1 How Does Meiosis Occur? | 316 | ||
| Chromosomes Come in Distinct Sizes and Shapes | 316 | ||
| The Concept of Ploidy | 317 | ||
| An Overview of Meiosis | 317 | ||
| The Phases of Meiosis I | 321 | ||
| The Phases of Meiosis II | 322 | ||
| A Closer Look at Synapsis and Crossing over | 323 | ||
| Mitosis versus Meiosis | 323 | ||
| 13.2 Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation | 324 | ||
| Chromosomes and Heredity | 325 | ||
| The Role of Independent Assortment | 325 | ||
| The Role of Crossing over | 326 | ||
| How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation? | 326 | ||
| 13.3 What Happens When Things Go Wrong in Meiosis? | 327 | ||
| How Do Mistakes Occur? | 327 | ||
| Why Do Mistakes Occur? | 328 | ||
| 13.4 Why Does Meiosis Exist? | 328 | ||
| The Paradox of Sex | 328 | ||
| The Purifying Selection Hypothesis | 329 | ||
| The Changing-Environment Hypothesis | 329 | ||
| Chapter Review | 331 | ||
| 14 Mendel and the Gene | 333 | ||
| 14.1 Mendel’s Experimental System | 334 | ||
| What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer? | 334 | ||
| The Garden Pea Served as the First Model Organism in Genetics | 334 | ||
| 14.2 Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait | 336 | ||
| The Monohybrid Cross | 336 | ||
| Particulate Inheritance | 338 | ||
| 14.3 Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits | 340 | ||
| The Dihybrid Cross | 340 | ||
| Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions | 342 | ||
| 14.4 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance | 343 | ||
| Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Principles | 344 | ||
| Testing the Chromosome Theory | 344 | ||
| 14.5 Extending Mendel’s Rules | 346 | ||
| Linkage: What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome? | 347 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 14.1 Linkage and Genetic Mapping | 349 | ||
| How Many Alleles Can a Gene Have? | 350 | ||
| Are Alleles Always Dominant or Recessive? | 350 | ||
| Does Each Gene Affect Just One Trait? | 350 | ||
| Are All Traits Determined by a Gene? | 351 | ||
| Can Mendel’s Principles Explain Traits That Don’t Fall into Distinct Categories? | 352 | ||
| 14.6 Applying Mendel’s Rules to Human Inheritance | 354 | ||
| Identifying Alleles as Recessive or Dominant | 354 | ||
| Identifying Traits as Autosomal or Sex-Linked | 355 | ||
| Chapter Review | 356 | ||
| 15 DNA and the Gene: Synthesis and Repair | 360 | ||
| 15.1 What Are Genes Made Of? | 361 | ||
| The Hershey–Chase Experiment | 361 | ||
| The Secondary Structure of DNA | 362 | ||
| 15.2 Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis | 363 | ||
| Three Alternative Hypotheses | 364 | ||
| The Meselson–Stahl Experiment | 364 | ||
| 15.3 A Model for DNA Synthesis | 364 | ||
| Where Does Replication Start? | 366 | ||
| How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized? | 366 | ||
| How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized? | 368 | ||
| How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized? | 368 | ||
| 15.4 Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes | 371 | ||
| The End Replication Problem | 371 | ||
| Telomerase Solves the End Replication Problem | 372 | ||
| Effect of Telomere Length on Cell Division | 373 | ||
| 15.5 Repairing Mistakes and DNA Damage | 373 | ||
| Correcting Mistakes in DNA Synthesis | 374 | ||
| Repairing Damaged DNA | 374 | ||
| Xeroderma Pigmentosum: A Case Study | 375 | ||
| Chapter Review | 376 | ||
| 16 How Genes Work | 379 | ||
| 16.1 What Do Genes Do? | 380 | ||
| The One-Gene, One-Enzyme Hypothesis | 380 | ||
| An Experimental Test of the Hypothesis | 380 | ||
| 16.2 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology | 382 | ||
| The Genetic Code Hypothesis | 382 | ||
| RNA as the Intermediary between Genes and Proteins | 382 | ||
| Dissecting the Central Dogma | 383 | ||
| 16.3 The Genetic Code | 385 | ||
| How Long Is a “Word” in the Genetic Code? | 385 | ||
| How Did Researchers Crack the Code? | 386 | ||
| 16.4 What Are the Types and Consequences of Mutation? | 387 | ||
| Point Mutations | 388 | ||
| Chromosome Mutations | 389 | ||
| Chapter Review | 390 | ||
| 17 Transcription, RNA Processing, and Translation | 392 | ||
| 17.1 An Overview of Transcription | 393 | ||
| Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria? | 393 | ||
| Elongation and Termination | 395 | ||
| Transcription in Eukaryotes | 395 | ||
| 17.2 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes | 397 | ||
| The Startling Discovery of Split Eukaryotic Genes | 397 | ||
| Rna Splicing | 397 | ||
| Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts | 398 | ||
| 17.3 An Introduction to Translation | 399 | ||
| Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis | 399 | ||
| Translation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes | 399 | ||
| How Does an mRNA Triplet Specify an Amino Acid? | 400 | ||
| 17.4 The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA | 400 | ||
| What Do tRNAs Look Like? | 401 | ||
| How Are Amino Acids Attached to tRNAs? | 402 | ||
| How Many tRNAs Are There? | 402 | ||
| 17.5 The Structure of Ribosomes and Their Function in Translation | 403 | ||
| Initiating Translation | 405 | ||
| Elongation: Extending the Polypeptide | 405 | ||
| Terminating Translation | 406 | ||
| Post-Translational Modifications | 407 | ||
| Chapter Review | 408 | ||
| 18 Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria | 411 | ||
| 18.1 An Overview of Gene Regulation and Information Flow | 412 | ||
| Mechanisms of Regulation | 412 | ||
| Metabolizing Lactose—A Model System | 413 | ||
| 18.2 Identifying Regulated Genes | 414 | ||
| 18.3 Negative Control of Transcription | 416 | ||
| The Operon Model | 417 | ||
| How Does Glucose Regulate the lac Operon? | 418 | ||
| Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important? | 419 | ||
| 18.4 Positive Control of Transcription | 419 | ||
| 18.5 Global Gene Regulation | 420 | ||
| Chapter Review | 421 | ||
| 19 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes | 423 | ||
| 19.1 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes—An Overview | 424 | ||
| 19.2 Chromatin Remodeling | 424 | ||
| What Is Chromatin’s Basic Structure? | 425 | ||
| Evidence That Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes | 426 | ||
| How Is Chromatin Altered? | 426 | ||
| Chromatin Modifications Can Be Inherited | 427 | ||
| 19.3 Initiating Transcription: Regulatory Sequences and Proteins | 428 | ||
| Promoter-Proximal Elements Are Regulatory Sequences Near the Core Promoter | 429 | ||
| Enhancers Are Regulatory Sequences Far from the Core Promoter | 429 | ||
| The Role of Transcription Factors in Differential Gene Expression | 430 | ||
| How Do Transcription Factors Recognize Specific Dna Sequences? | 430 | ||
| A Model for Transcription Initiation | 431 | ||
| 19.4 Post-Transcriptional Control | 432 | ||
| Alternative Splicing of Primary Transcripts | 432 | ||
| How Is Translation Controlled? | 433 | ||
| Post-Translational Control | 435 | ||
| 19.5 How Does Gene Expression Compare in Bacteria and Eukaryotes? | 435 | ||
| 19.6 Linking Cancer to Defects in Gene Regulation | 436 | ||
| The Genetic Basis of Uncontrolled Cell Growth | 436 | ||
| The p53 Tumor Suppressor: A Case Study | 436 | ||
| Chapter Review | 437 | ||
| Big Picture Genetic Information | 440 | ||
| 20 The Molecular Revolution: Biotechnology and Beyond | 442 | ||
| 20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology | 443 | ||
| Using Plasmids in Cloning | 443 | ||
| Using Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligase to Cut and Paste DNA | 443 | ||
| Transformation: Introducing Recombinant Plasmids into Bacterial Cells | 445 | ||
| Using Reverse Transcriptase to Produce cDNAs | 445 | ||
| Biotechnology in Agriculture | 445 | ||
| 20.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction | 445 | ||
| Requirements of PCR | 445 | ||
| DNA Fingerprinting | 446 | ||
| A New Branch of the Human Family Tree | 446 | ||
| 20.3 DNA Sequencing | 447 | ||
| Whole-Genome Sequencing | 448 | ||
| Bioinformatics | 448 | ||
| Which Genomes Are Being Sequenced, and Why? | 448 | ||
| Which Sequences Are Genes? | 448 | ||
| 20.4 Insights from Genome Analysis | 449 | ||
| The Natural History of Prokaryotic Genomes | 450 | ||
| The Natural History of Eukaryotic Genomes | 451 | ||
| Insights from the Human Genome Project | 454 | ||
| 20.5 Finding and Engineering Genes: the Huntington Disease Story | 455 | ||
| How Was the Huntington Disease Gene Found? | 455 | ||
| How Are Human Genes Found Today? | 456 | ||
| What Are the Benefits of Finding a Disease Gene? | 456 | ||
| Can Gene Therapy Provide a Cure? | 457 | ||
| 20.6 Functional Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology | 458 | ||
| What Is Functional Genomics? | 458 | ||
| What Is Proteomics? | 458 | ||
| What Is Systems Biology? | 458 | ||
| Chapter Review | 459 | ||
| 21 Genes, Development, and Evolution | 462 | ||
| 21.1 Shared Developmental Processes | 463 | ||
| Cell Division | 463 | ||
| Cell–Cell Interactions | 464 | ||
| Cell Differentiation | 464 | ||
| Cell Movement and Changes in Shape | 465 | ||
| Programmed Cell Death | 465 | ||
| 21.2 Genetic Equivalence and Differential Gene Expression in Development | 466 | ||
| Evidence that Differentiated Plant Cells Are Genetically Equivalent | 466 | ||
| Evidence that Differentiated Animal Cells Are Genetically Equivalent | 466 | ||
| How Does Differential Gene Expression Occur? | 467 | ||
| 21.3 Regulatory Cascades Establish the Body Plan | 468 | ||
| Morphogens Set Up the Body Axes | 468 | ||
| Regulatory Genes Provide Increasingly Specific Positional Information | 470 | ||
| Regulatory Genes and Signaling Molecules Are Evolutionarily Conserved | 472 | ||
| One Regulator Can Be Used Many Different Ways | 473 | ||
| 21.4 Cells Are Determined Before They Differentiate | 473 | ||
| Commitment and Determination | 474 | ||
| Master Regulators of Differentiation and Development | 474 | ||
| Stem Cell Therapy | 475 | ||
| 21.5 Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive Evolutionary Change | 475 | ||
| Chapter Review | 476 | ||
| Unit 4 Evolutionary Patterns and Processes | 479 | ||
| 22 Evolution by Natural Selection | 479 | ||
| 22.1 The Rise of Evolutionary Thought | 480 | ||
| Plato and Typological Thinking | 480 | ||
| Aristotle and the Scale of Nature | 480 | ||
| Lamarck and the Idea of Evolution as Change through Time | 481 | ||
| Darwin and Wallace and Evolution by Natural Selection | 481 | ||
| 22.2 The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed, and Are They Related? | 481 | ||
| Evidence for Change through Time | 481 | ||
| Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor | 484 | ||
| Evolution’s “Internal Consistency”— The Importance of Independent Data Sets | 487 | ||
| Unit 5 The Diversification of Life | 562 | ||
| 26 Bacteria and Archaea | 562 | ||
| 26.1 Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea? | 563 | ||
| Biological Impact | 563 | ||
| Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Environments | 563 | ||
| Medical Importance | 564 | ||
| Role in Bioremediation | 566 | ||
| 26.2 How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea? | 567 | ||
| Using Enrichment Cultures | 567 | ||
| Using Metagenomics | 568 | ||
| Investigating the Human Microbiome | 568 | ||
| Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies | 568 | ||
| 26.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea? | 569 | ||
| Genetic Variation through Gene Transfer | 569 | ||
| Morphological Diversity | 570 | ||
| Metabolic Diversity | 572 | ||
| Ecological Diversity and Global Impacts | 575 | ||
| 26.4 Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea | 578 | ||
| Bacteria | 578 | ||
| Archaea | 578 | ||
| Chapter Review | 581 | ||
| 27 Protists | 583 | ||
| 27.1 Why Do Biologists Study Protists? | 584 | ||
| Impacts on Human Health and Welfare | 584 | ||
| Ecological Importance of Protists | 586 | ||
| 27.2 How Do Biologists Study Protists? | 587 | ||
| Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure | 588 | ||
| Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies | 588 | ||
| Discovering New Lineages Via Direct Sequencing | 589 | ||
| 27.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists? | 590 | ||
| What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists? | 590 | ||
| How Do Protists Obtain Food? | 595 | ||
| How Do Protists Move? | 596 | ||
| How Do Protists Reproduce? | 596 | ||
| 27.4 Key Lineages of Protists | 600 | ||
| Amoebozoa | 600 | ||
| Excavata | 600 | ||
| Plantae | 600 | ||
| Rhizaria | 600 | ||
| Alveolata | 602 | ||
| Stramenopila (Heterokonta) | 602 | ||
| Chapter Review | 602 | ||
| 28 Green Algae and Land Plants | 605 | ||
| 28.1 Why Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants? | 606 | ||
| Plants Provide Ecosystem Services | 606 | ||
| Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fiber, Building Materials, and Medicines | 607 | ||
| 28.2 How Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants? | 608 | ||
| Analyzing Morphological Traits | 608 | ||
| Using the Fossil Record | 609 | ||
| Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies | 610 | ||
| 28.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Land Plants? | 612 | ||
| The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions with Intense Sunlight? | 612 | ||
| Mapping Evolutionary Changes on the Phylogenetic Tree | 615 | ||
| The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions? | 615 | ||
| The Angiosperm Radiation | 624 | ||
| 28.4 Key Lineages of Green Algae and Land Plants | 625 | ||
| Green Algae | 625 | ||
| Nonvascular Plants | 626 | ||
| Seedless Vascular Plants | 626 | ||
| Seed Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms | 626 | ||
| Chapter Review | 632 | ||
| 29 Fungi | 634 | ||
| 29.1 Why Do Biologists Study Fungi? | 635 | ||
| Fungi Have Important Economic and Ecological Impacts | 635 | ||
| Mycorrhizal Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants | 636 | ||
| Saprophytic Fungi Accelerate the Carbon Cycle on Land | 637 | ||
| 29.2 How Do Biologists Study Fungi? | 637 | ||
| Analyzing Morphological Traits | 638 | ||
| Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies | 640 | ||
| 29.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi? | 642 | ||
| Fungi Often Participate in Symbioses | 643 | ||
| What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective Decomposers? | 646 | ||
| Variation in Reproduction | 647 | ||
| Four Major Types of Life Cycles | 649 | ||
| 29.4 Key Lineages of Fungi | 652 | ||
| Microsporidia | 652 | ||
| Chytrids | 653 | ||
| Zygomycetes | 653 | ||
| Glomeromycota | 654 | ||
| Basidiomycota | 654 | ||
| Ascomycota | 654 | ||
| Chapter Review | 654 | ||
| 30 An Introduction to Animals | 657 | ||
| 30.1 What Is an Animal? | 658 | ||
| 30.2 What Key Innovations Occurred During the Origin of Animal Phyla? | 659 | ||
| Origin of Multicellularity | 660 | ||
| Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers and Muscle | 662 | ||
| Origin of Bilateral Symmetry, Cephalization, and the Nervous System | 663 | ||
| Origin of the Coelom | 665 | ||
| Origin of Protostomes and Deuterostomes | 666 | ||
| Origin of Segmentation | 667 | ||
| 30.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals Within Phyla? | 667 | ||
| Sensory Organs | 668 | ||
| Feeding | 669 | ||
| Movement | 670 | ||
| Reproduction | 672 | ||
| Life Cycles | 673 | ||
| 30.4 Key Lineages of Animals: Non-bilaterian Groups | 674 | ||
| Porifera (Sponges) | 674 | ||
| Ctenophora (Comb Jellies) | 675 | ||
| Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids) | 675 | ||
| Chapter Review | 676 | ||
| 31 Protostome Animals | 678 | ||
| 31.1 What Is a Protostome? | 679 | ||
| The Water-to-land Transition | 680 | ||
| Modular Body Plans | 681 | ||
| 31.2 What Is a Lophotrochozoan? | 681 | ||
| What Is a Flatworm? | 684 | ||
| What Is a Segmented Worm? | 685 | ||
| What Is a Mollusk? | 685 | ||
| 31.3 What Is an Ecdysozoan? | 688 | ||
| What Is a Roundworm? | 689 | ||
| What Are Tardigrades and Velvet Worms? | 689 | ||
| What Is an Arthropod? | 689 | ||
| Arthropod Diversity | 692 | ||
| Arthropod Metamorphosis | 696 | ||
| Chapter Review | 697 | ||
| 32 Deuterostome Animals | 699 | ||
| 32.1 What Is an Echinoderm? | 700 | ||
| The Echinoderm Body Plan | 700 | ||
| Echinoderms Are Important Consumers | 701 | ||
| 32.2 What Is a Chordate? | 703 | ||
| The Cephalochordates | 704 | ||
| The Urochordates | 704 | ||
| The Vertebrates | 705 | ||
| 32.3 What Is a Vertebrate? | 705 | ||
| 32.4 What Key Innovations Occurred During the Evolution of Vertebrates? | 706 | ||
| Urochordates: Outgroup to Vertebrates | 706 | ||
| First Vertebrates: Origin of the Cranium and Vertebrae | 708 | ||
| Gnathostomes: Origin of the Vertebrate Jaw | 709 | ||
| Origin of the Bony Endoskeleton | 711 | ||
| Tetrapods: Origin of the Limb | 711 | ||
| Amniotes: Origin of the Amniotic Egg | 712 | ||
| Mammals: Origin of Lactation and Fur | 713 | ||
| Reptiles: Origin of Scales and Feathers Made of Keratin | 714 | ||
| Parental Care | 716 | ||
| Take-Home Messages | 717 | ||
| 32.5 The Primates and Hominins | 717 | ||
| The Primates | 717 | ||
| Fossil Humans | 719 | ||
| The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis | 722 | ||
| Have Humans Stopped Evolving? | 723 | ||
| Chapter Review | 724 | ||
| 33 Viruses | 726 | ||
| 33.1 Why Do Biologists Study Viruses? | 727 | ||
| Viruses Shape the Evolution of Organisms | 727 | ||
| Viruses Cause Disease | 727 | ||
| Current Viral Pandemics in Humans: Aids | 727 | ||
| 33.2 How Do Biologists Study Viruses? | 729 | ||
| Analyzing Morphological Traits | 730 | ||
| Analyzing the Genetic Material | 730 | ||
| Analyzing the Phases of Replicative Growth | 731 | ||
| Analyzing How Viruses Coexist with Host Cells | 737 | ||
| 33.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses? | 738 | ||
| Where Did Viruses Come From? | 738 | ||
| Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases | 738 | ||
| 33.4 Key Lineages of Viruses | 740 | ||
| Chapter Review | 744 | ||
| Big Picture Diversity of Life | 746 | ||
| Unit 6 How Plants Work | 748 | ||
| 34 Plant Form and Function | 748 | ||
| 34.1 Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations | 749 | ||
| The Importance of Surface Area/volume Relationships | 750 | ||
| The Root System | 751 | ||
| The Shoot System | 752 | ||
| The Leaf | 754 | ||
| 34.2 Plant Cells and Tissue Systems | 757 | ||
| The Dermal Tissue System | 758 | ||
| The Ground Tissue System | 758 | ||
| The Vascular Tissue System | 760 | ||
| 34.3 Primary Growth Extends the Plant Body | 762 | ||
| How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant Body? | 762 | ||
| How Is the Primary Root System Organized? | 764 | ||
| How Is the Primary Shoot System Organized? | 764 | ||
| 34.4 Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots | 765 | ||
| What Is a Cambium? | 765 | ||
| How Does a Cambium Initiate Secondary Growth? | 766 | ||
| What Do Vascular Cambia Produce? | 767 | ||
| What Do Cork Cambia Produce? | 768 | ||
| The Structure of Tree Trunks | 768 | ||
| Chapter Review | 769 | ||
| 35 Water and Sugar Transport in Plants | 771 | ||
| 35.1 Water Potential and Water Movement | 772 | ||
| What Is Water Potential? | 772 | ||
| What Factors Affect Water Potential? | 772 | ||
| Working with Water Potentials | 773 | ||
| Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere | 774 | ||
| 35.2 How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots? | 776 | ||
| Movement of Water and Solutes into the Root | 776 | ||
| Water Movement Via Root Pressure | 777 | ||
| Water Movement Via Capillary Action | 778 | ||
| The Cohesion-Tension Theory | 778 | ||
| 35.3 Plant Features That Reduce Water Loss | 781 | ||
| Limiting Water Loss | 781 | ||
| Obtaining Carbon Dioxide Under Water Stress | 782 | ||
| 35.4 Translocation of Sugars | 782 | ||
| Tracing Connections Between Sources and Sinks | 782 | ||
| The Anatomy of Phloem | 784 | ||
| The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis | 784 | ||
| Phloem Loading | 785 | ||
| Phloem Unloading | 788 | ||
| Chapter Review | 789 | ||
| 36 Plant Nutrition | 791 | ||
| 36.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants | 792 | ||
| Which Nutrients Are Essential? | 792 | ||
| What Happens When Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply? | 794 | ||
| 36.2 Soil: A Dynamic Mixture of Living and Nonliving Components | 795 | ||
| The Importance of Soil Conservation | 795 | ||
| What Factors Affect Nutrient Availability? | 796 | ||
| 36.3 Nutrient Uptake | 798 | ||
| Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake | 798 | ||
| Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion | 800 | ||
| 36.4 Nitrogen Fixation | 802 | ||
| The Role of Symbiotic Bacteria | 803 | ||
| How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Infect Plant Roots? | 803 | ||
| 36.5 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants | 804 | ||
| Parasitic Plants | 804 | ||
| Epiphytic Plants | 805 | ||
| Carnivorous Plants | 806 | ||
| Chapter Review | 806 | ||
| 37 Plant Sensory Systems, Signals, and Responses | 809 | ||
| 37.1 Information Processing in Plants | 810 | ||
| How Do Cells Receive and Process an External Signal? | 810 | ||
| How Do Cells Respond to Cell–Cell Signals? | 810 | ||
| 37.2 Blue Light: The Phototropic Response | 812 | ||
| Phototropins as Blue-Light Receptors | 812 | ||
| Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone | 813 | ||
| 37.3 Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Stem Elongation, and Flowering | 816 | ||
| The Red/Far-Red “Wwitch” | 816 | ||
| Phytochrome Is a Red/Far-Red Receptor | 816 | ||
| Signals That Promote Flowering | 817 | ||
| 37.4 Gravity: The Gravitropic Response | 819 | ||
| The Statolith Hypothesis | 819 | ||
| Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal | 820 | ||
| 37.5 How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch? | 821 | ||
| Changes in Growth Patterns | 821 | ||
| Movement Responses | 821 | ||
| 37.6 Youth, Maturity, and Aging: the Growth Responses | 822 | ||
| Auxin and Apical Dominance | 822 | ||
| Cytokinins and Cell Division | 823 | ||
| Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy | 823 | ||
| Brassinosteroids and Body Size | 826 | ||
| Ethylene and Senescence | 827 | ||
| An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators | 828 | ||
| 37.7 Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defense Responses | 830 | ||
| How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens? | 830 | ||
| How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack? | 832 | ||
| Chapter Review | 834 | ||
| 38 Plant Reproduction and Development | 837 | ||
| 38.1 An Introduction to Plant Reproduction | 838 | ||
| Asexual Reproduction | 838 | ||
| Sexual Reproduction and the Plant Life Cycle | 839 | ||
| 38.2 Reproductive Structures | 840 | ||
| The General Structure of the Flower | 840 | ||
| How Are Female Gametophytes Produced? | 841 | ||
| How Are Male Gametophytes Produced? | 842 | ||
| 38.3 Pollination and Fertilization | 843 | ||
| Pollination | 843 | ||
| Fertilization | 846 | ||
| 38.4 Seeds and Fruits | 846 | ||
| The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation | 847 | ||
| Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal | 847 | ||
| Seed Dormancy | 849 | ||
| Seed Germination | 850 | ||
| 38.5 Embryogenesis and Vegetative Development | 851 | ||
| Embryogenesis | 851 | ||
| Meristem Formation | 852 | ||
| Which Genes Determine Body Axes in the Plant Embryo? | 853 | ||
| Which Genes Determine Leaf Structure and Shape? | 854 | ||
| 38.6 Reproductive Development | 854 | ||
| The Floral Meristem and the Flower | 855 | ||
| The Genetic Control of Flower Structures | 855 | ||
| Chapter Review | 857 | ||
| Big Picture Plant and Animal Form and Function | 860 | ||
| Unit 7 How Animals WorkUntitled | 862 | ||
| 39 Animal Form and Function | 862 | ||
| 39.1 Form, Function, and Adaptation | 863 | ||
| The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs | 863 | ||
| Adaptation and Acclimatization | 865 | ||
| 39.2 Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function? | 865 | ||
| Structure–Function Relationships at the Molecular and Cellular Levels | 866 | ||
| Tissues Are Groups of Cells That Function as a Unit | 866 | ||
| Organs and Organ Systems | 869 | ||
| 39.3 How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology? | 870 | ||
| Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Theory | 870 | ||
| Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Data | 871 | ||
| Adaptations That Increase Surface Area | 872 | ||
| 39.4 Homeostasis | 873 | ||
| Homeostasis: General Principles | 873 | ||
| The Role of Regulation and Feedback | 874 | ||
| 39.5 Thermoregulation: A Closer Look | 875 | ||
| Mechanisms of Heat Exchange | 875 | ||
| Thermoregulatory Strategies | 876 | ||
| Comparing Endothermy and Ectothermy | 876 | ||
| Countercurrent Heat Exchangers | 877 | ||
| Chapter Review | 878 | ||
| 40 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals | 880 | ||
| 40.1 Osmoregulation and Excretion | 881 | ||
| What Is Osmotic Stress? | 881 | ||
| Osmotic Stress in Seawater, in Freshwater, and on Land | 881 | ||
| How Do Electrolytes and Water Move Across Cell Membranes? | 883 | ||
| Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance | 883 | ||
| 40.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Marine Fishes | 884 | ||
| Osmoconformation versus Osmoregulation in Marine Fishes | 884 | ||
| How Do Sharks Excrete Salt? | 884 | ||
| 40.3 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Freshwater Fishes | 885 | ||
| How Do Freshwater Fishes Osmoregulate? | 885 | ||
| 40.4 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects | 886 | ||
| How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface? | 887 | ||
| 40.5 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates | 888 | ||
| The Structure of the Mammalian Kidney | 888 | ||
| The Function of the Mammalian Kidney: An Overview | 889 | ||
| Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle | 890 | ||
| Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule | 890 | ||
| Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle | 891 | ||
| Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct | 894 | ||
| Urine Formation in Nonmammalian Vertebrates | 895 | ||
| Chapter Review | 896 | ||
| 41 Animal Nutrition | 899 | ||
| 41.1 Nutritional Requirements | 900 | ||
| 41.2 Capturing Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts | 902 | ||
| Mouthparts as Adaptations | 902 | ||
| A Case Study: The Cichlid Throat Jaw | 902 | ||
| 41.3 How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed? | 903 | ||
| An Introduction to the Digestive Tract | 903 | ||
| An Overview of Digestive Processes | 904 | ||
| The Mouth and Esophagus | 905 | ||
| The Stomach | 906 | ||
| The Small Intestine | 908 | ||
| The Large Intestine | 912 | ||
| 41.4 Nutritional Homeostasis—Glucose as a Case Study | 913 | ||
| The Discovery of Insulin | 913 | ||
| Insulin’s Role in Homeostasis | 914 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus Has Two Forms | 914 | ||
| The Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Epidemic | 914 | ||
| Chapter Review | 915 | ||
| 42 Gas exchange and Circulation | 918 | ||
| 42.1 The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems | 919 | ||
| 42.2 Air and Water as Respiratory Media | 919 | ||
| How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air? | 919 | ||
| How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water? | 920 | ||
| 42.3 Organs of Gas Exchange | 921 | ||
| Physical Parameters: The Law of Diffusion | 921 | ||
| How Do Gills Work? | 922 | ||
| How Do Insect Tracheae Work? | 923 | ||
| How Do Vertebrate Lungs Work? | 925 | ||
| Homeostatic Control of Ventilation | 927 | ||
| 42.4 How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported in Blood? | 928 | ||
| Structure and Function of Hemoglobin | 928 | ||
| CO2 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH | 931 | ||
| 42.5 Circulation | 932 | ||
| What Is an Open Circulatory System? | 933 | ||
| What Is a Closed Circulatory System? | 933 | ||
| How Does the Heart Work? | 935 | ||
| Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow | 939 | ||
| Chapter Review | 941 | ||
| 43 Animal Nervous Systems | 943 | ||
| 43.1 Principles of Electrical Signaling | 944 | ||
| Types of Neurons | 944 | ||
| The Anatomy of a Neuron | 945 | ||
| An Introduction to Membrane Potentials | 945 | ||
| How Is the Resting Potential Maintained? | 946 | ||
| Using Electrodes to Measure Membrane Potentials | 947 | ||
| What Is an Action Potential? | 947 | ||
| 43.2 Dissecting the Action Potential | 948 | ||
| Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization and Repolarization | 948 | ||
| How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work? | 948 | ||
| How Is the Action Potential Propagated? | 949 | ||
| 43.3 The Synapse | 952 | ||
| Synapse Structure and Neurotransmitter Release | 952 | ||
| What Do Neurotransmitters Do? | 954 | ||
| Postsynaptic Potentials | 954 | ||
| 43.4 The Vertebrate Nervous System | 956 | ||
| What Does the Peripheral Nervous System Do? | 956 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the CNS | 957 | ||
| How Do Learning and Memory Work? | 961 | ||
| Chapter Review | 963 | ||
| 44 Animal Sensory Systems | 966 | ||
| 44.1 How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain? | 967 | ||
| Sensory Transduction | 967 | ||
| Transmitting Information to the Brain | 968 | ||
| 44.2 Mechanoreception: Sensing Pressure Changes | 968 | ||
| How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure? | 968 | ||
| Hearing: The Mammalian Ear | 969 | ||
| The Lateral Line System in Fishes and Amphibians | 972 | ||
| 44.3 Photoreception: Sensing Light | 973 | ||
| The Insect Eye | 973 | ||
| The Vertebrate Eye | 974 | ||
| 44.4 Chemoreception: Sensing Chemicals | 978 | ||
| Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth | 978 | ||
| Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air | 979 | ||
| 44.5 Other Sensory Systems | 981 | ||
| Thermoreception: Sensing Temperature | 981 | ||
| Electroreception: Sensing Electric Fields | 982 | ||
| Magnetoreception: Sensing Magnetic Fields | 983 | ||
| Chapter Review | 983 | ||
| 45 Animal Movement | 986 | ||
| 45.1 How Do Muscles Contract? | 987 | ||
| Early Muscle Experiments | 987 | ||
| The Sliding-Filament Model | 987 | ||
| How Do Actin and Myosin Interact? | 988 | ||
| How Do Neurons Initiate Contraction? | 990 | ||
| 45.2 Muscle Tissues | 991 | ||
| Smooth Muscle | 991 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle | 992 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle | 992 | ||
| 45.3 Skeletal Systems | 994 | ||
| Hydrostatic Skeletons | 995 | ||
| Endoskeletons | 996 | ||
| Exoskeletons | 997 | ||
| 45.4 Locomotion | 998 | ||
| How Do Biologists Study Locomotion? | 998 | ||
| Size Matters | 1001 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1002 | ||
| 46 Chemical Signals in Animals | 1005 | ||
| 46.1 Cell-to-Cell Signaling: An Overview | 1006 | ||
| Major Categories of Chemical Signals | 1006 | ||
| Hormone Signaling Pathways | 1007 | ||
| What Makes Up the Endocrine System? | 1008 | ||
| How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone? | 1009 | ||
| A Breakthrough in Measuring Hormone Levels | 1009 | ||
| 46.2 How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells? | 1010 | ||
| Hormone Concentrations Are Low, but Their Effects Are Large | 1010 | ||
| Three Chemical Classes of Hormones | 1011 | ||
| Steroid Hormones Bind to Intracellular Receptors | 1011 | ||
| Polypeptide Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Plasma Membrane | 1012 | ||
| Why Do Different Target Cells Respond in Different Ways? | 1014 | ||
| 46.3 What Do Hormones Do? | 1015 | ||
| How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes? | 1015 | ||
| How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Stressors? | 1017 | ||
| How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis? | 1019 | ||
| 46.4 How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated? | 1020 | ||
| The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland | 1020 | ||
| Control of Epinephrine by Sympathetic Nerves | 1022 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1022 | ||
| 47 Animal Reproduction and Development | 1025 | ||
| 47.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction | 1026 | ||
| How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur? | 1026 | ||
| Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History | 1026 | ||
| Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis | 1028 | ||
| 47.2 Reproductive Structures and Their Functions | 1030 | ||
| The Male Reproductive System | 1030 | ||
| The Female Reproductive System | 1031 | ||
| 47.3 Fertilization and Egg Development | 1033 | ||
| External Fertilization | 1033 | ||
| Internal Fertilization | 1033 | ||
| The Cell Biology of Fertilization | 1035 | ||
| Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs While Others Give Birth? | 1036 | ||
| 47.4 Embryonic Development | 1038 | ||
| Cleavage | 1038 | ||
| Gastrulation | 1039 | ||
| Organogenesis | 1040 | ||
| 47.5 The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction | 1043 | ||
| Which Hormones Control Puberty? | 1043 | ||
| Which Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle in Humans? | 1044 | ||
| 47.6 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals | 1046 | ||
| Gestation and Development in Marsupials | 1047 | ||
| Major Events During Human Pregnancy | 1047 | ||
| How Does the Mother Nourish the Fetus? | 1048 | ||
| Birth | 1049 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1049 | ||
| 48 The Immune System in Animals | 1052 | ||
| 48.1 Innate Immunity | 1053 | ||
| Barriers to Entry | 1053 | ||
| The Innate Immune Response | 1054 | ||
| 48.2 Adaptive Immunity: Recognition | 1057 | ||
| An Introduction to Lymphocytes | 1057 | ||
| Lymphocytes Recognize a Diverse Array of Antigens | 1058 | ||
| How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from Nonself? | 1061 | ||
| 48.3 Adaptive Immunity: Activation | 1062 | ||
| The Clonal Selection Theory | 1062 | ||
| T-Cell Activation | 1063 | ||
| B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion | 1064 | ||
| 48.4 Adaptive Immunity: Response and Memory | 1066 | ||
| How Are Extracellular Pathogens Eliminated? | 1066 | ||
| How Are Intracellular Pathogens Eliminated? | 1067 | ||
| Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs? | 1067 | ||
| Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory | 1068 | ||
| 48.5 What Happens When the Immune System Doesn't Work Correctly? | 1069 | ||
| Allergies | 1070 | ||
| Autoimmune Diseases | 1070 | ||
| Immunodeficiency Diseases | 1070 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1071 | ||
| Unit 8 Ecology | 1073 | ||
| 49 An Introduction to Ecology | 1073 | ||
| 49.1 Levels of Ecological Study | 1074 | ||
| Organismal Ecology | 1074 | ||
| Population Ecology | 1075 | ||
| Community Ecology | 1075 | ||
| Ecosystem Ecology | 1075 | ||
| Global Ecology | 1075 | ||
| Conservation Biology Applies All Levels of Ecological Study | 1075 | ||
| 49.2 What Determines the Distribution and Abundance of Organisms? | 1075 | ||
| Abiotic Factors | 1076 | ||
| Biotic Factors | 1076 | ||
| History Matters: Past Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influence Present Patterns | 1077 | ||
| Biotic and Abiotic Factors Interact | 1078 | ||
| 49.3 Climate Patterns | 1080 | ||
| Why Are the Tropics Warm and the Poles Cold? | 1080 | ||
| Why Are the Tropics Wet? | 1080 | ||
| What Causes Seasonality in Weather? | 1080 | ||
| What Regional Effects Do Mountains and Oceans Have on Climate? | 1082 | ||
| 49.4 Types of Terrestrial Biomes | 1083 | ||
| Natural Biomes | 1083 | ||
| Anthropogenic Biomes | 1084 | ||
| How Will Global Climate Change Affect Terrestrial Biomes? | 1086 | ||
| 49.5 Types of Aquatic Biomes | 1087 | ||
| Salinity | 1087 | ||
| Water Depth and Sunlight Availability | 1088 | ||
| Water Flow | 1089 | ||
| Nutrient Availability | 1089 | ||
| How Are Aquatic Biomes Affected by Humans? | 1092 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1092 | ||
| 50 Behavioral Ecology | 1095 | ||
| 50.1 An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology | 1096 | ||
| Proximate and Ultimate Causation | 1096 | ||
| Types of Behavior: An Overview | 1097 | ||
| 50.2 Choosing What, How, and When to Eat | 1098 | ||
| Proximate Causes: Foraging Alleles in Drosophila melanogaster | 1098 | ||
| Ultimate Causes: Optimal Foraging | 1098 | ||
| 50.3 Choosing a Mate | 1100 | ||
| Proximate Causes: How Is Sexual Activity Triggered in Anolis Lizards? | 1100 | ||
| Ultimate Causes: Sexual Selection | 1101 | ||
| 50.4 Choosing a Place to Live | 1102 | ||
| Proximate Causes: How Do Animals Navigate? | 1102 | ||
| Ultimate Causes: Why Do Animals Migrate? | 1104 | ||
| 50.5 Communicating with Others | 1105 | ||
| Proximate Causes: How Do Honeybees Communicate? | 1105 | ||
| Ultimate Causes: Why Do Honeybees Communicate the Way They Do? | 1106 | ||
| When Is Communication Honest or Deceitful? | 1107 | ||
| 50.6 Cooperating with Others | 1108 | ||
| Kin Selection | 1108 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 50.1 Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness | 1109 | ||
| Manipulation | 1110 | ||
| Reciprocal Altruism | 1111 | ||
| Cooperation and Mutualism | 1111 | ||
| Individuals Do Not Act for the Good of the Species | 1111 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1112 | ||
| 51 Population Ecology | 1114 | ||
| 51.1 Distribution and Abundance | 1115 | ||
| Geographic Distribution | 1115 | ||
| Sampling Methods | 1116 | ||
| 51.2 Demography | 1116 | ||
| Life Tables | 1116 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 51.1 Mark–Recapture Studies | 1117 | ||
| The Role of Life History | 1119 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 51.2 Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates | 1119 | ||
| 51.3 Population Growth | 1120 | ||
| Exponential Growth | 1121 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 51.3 Using Growth Models to Predict Population Growth | 1122 | ||
| Logistic Growth | 1123 | ||
| What Factors Limit Population Size? | 1124 | ||
| 51.4 Population Dynamics | 1125 | ||
| Why Do Some Populations Cycle? | 1125 | ||
| How Do Metapopulations Change Through Time? | 1127 | ||
| 51.5 Human Population Growth | 1128 | ||
| Age Structure in Human Populations | 1128 | ||
| Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations | 1129 | ||
| 51.6 How Can Population Ecology Help Conserve Biodiversity? | 1131 | ||
| Using Life-Table Data | 1131 | ||
| Preserving Metapopulations | 1132 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1134 | ||
| 52 Community Ecology | 1136 | ||
| 52.1 Species Interactions | 1137 | ||
| Commensalism | 1137 | ||
| Competition | 1138 | ||
| Consumption | 1142 | ||
| Mutualism | 1145 | ||
| 52.2 Community Structure | 1147 | ||
| Why Are Some Species More Important Than Others in Structuring Communities? | 1148 | ||
| How Predictable Are Communities? | 1149 | ||
| 52.3 Community Dynamics | 1151 | ||
| Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities | 1151 | ||
| Succession: the Development of Communities After Disturbance | 1152 | ||
| 52.4 Patterns in Species Richness | 1155 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 52.1 Measuring Species Diversity | 1155 | ||
| Predicting Species Richness: the Theory of Island Biogeography | 1156 | ||
| Global Patterns in Species Richness | 1157 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1158 | ||
| 53 Ecosystems and Global Ecology | 1160 | ||
| 53.1 How Does Energy Flow Through Ecosystems? | 1161 | ||
| How Efficient Are Autotrophs at Capturing Solar Energy? | 1161 | ||
| What Happens to the Biomass of Autotrophs? | 1162 | ||
| Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels | 1163 | ||
| Global Patterns in Productivity | 1165 | ||
| 53.2 How Do Nutrients Cycle Through Ecosystems? | 1167 | ||
| Nutrient Cycling Within Ecosystems | 1167 | ||
| Global Biogeochemical Cycles | 1169 | ||
| 53.3 Global Climate Change | 1173 | ||
| What Is the Cause of Global Climate Change? | 1174 | ||
| How Much Will the Climate Change? | 1175 | ||
| Biological Effects of Climate Change | 1177 | ||
| Consequences to Net Primary Productivity | 1179 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1181 | ||
| 54 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology | 1183 | ||
| 54.1 What Is Biodiversity? | 1184 | ||
| Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels | 1184 | ||
| How Many Species Are Living Today? | 1186 | ||
| Where Is Biodiversity Highest? | 1186 | ||
| 54.2 Threats to Biodiversity | 1189 | ||
| Multiple Interacting Threats | 1189 | ||
| How Will These Threats Affect Future Extinction Rates? | 1193 | ||
| Quantitative Methods 54.1 Species–Area Plots | 1194 | ||
| 54.3 Why Is Biodiversity Important? | 1196 | ||
| Biological Benefits of Biodiversity | 1196 | ||
| Ecosystem Services: Economic and Social Benefits of Biodiversity and Ecosystems | 1198 | ||
| An Ethical Dimension | 1199 | ||
| 54.4 Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function | 1200 | ||
| Addressing the Ultimate Causes of Loss | 1200 | ||
| Conservation Strategies to Preserve Genetic Diversity, Species, and Ecosystem Function | 1201 | ||
| Take-Home Message | 1203 | ||
| Chapter Review | 1203 | ||
| Appendix A Answers | A:1 | ||
| Appendix B Periodic Table of Elements | B:1 | ||
| Glossary | G:1 | ||
| Credits | Cr:1 | ||
| Index | I:1 |