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Book Details
Abstract
In recent years there has been tremendous progress in the area of tissue engineering research. This book focusses on the fundamental principles underpinning these recent advances in the materials science developed for tissue engineering purposes. Smart materials for tissue engineering are produced by modifying the physicochemical and biological properties of the scaffolds with response to external stimuli to enhance the tissue regeneration. The functions of living cells can be regulated by smart materials which respond to changes in the surrounding microenvironment. This book comprehensively documents the recent advancements in smart materials for tissue engineering and will provide an essential text for those working in materials science and materials engineering, in academia and industry.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering: Fundamental Principles | i | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| Preface | ix | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| Chapter 1 - Smart Design of Materials for Tissue Engineering | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Mechanism Underlying Interaction of Cells with the Extracellular Matrix | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1 Direct Physical Signal Transmission Pathway | 4 | ||
| 1.2.2 Indirect Mechanochemical Signal Transduction Pathway | 4 | ||
| 1.2.3 Control of Cell Differentiation, Proliferation, and Migration by Defining the Dynamics of the Cell Adhesion Complex and Act... | 5 | ||
| 1.2.3.1 Stem Cell Differentiation | 5 | ||
| 1.2.3.2 Cell Proliferation | 7 | ||
| 1.2.3.3 Cell Migration | 7 | ||
| 1.3 Determinants of Cell Fate in the Extracellular Matrix | 8 | ||
| 1.3.1 Composition of Cell Adhesion Proteins | 8 | ||
| 1.3.2 ECM Topography | 8 | ||
| 1.3.3 ECM Stiffness | 9 | ||
| 1.4 Spatial and Temporal Scales in Cell and Material Interactions | 10 | ||
| 1.4.1 Molecular Level: Integrin | 11 | ||
| 1.4.2 Molecular Assembly Level | 11 | ||
| 1.4.2.1 Integrin Cluster | 11 | ||
| 1.4.2.2 Actin Cytoskeleton | 13 | ||
| 1.4.3 Single-Cell Level | 14 | ||
| 1.4.4 Multiple-Cell Level | 14 | ||
| 1.4.5 Integration of Multiple Spatiotemporal Effects | 15 | ||
| 1.5 Smart Design of Materials to Control the Dynamic State of Tissues | 15 | ||
| 1.6 Future Challenges | 18 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 18 | ||
| References | 18 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Smart Surfaces Chemistry and Coating Materials for Tissue Engineering | 25 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 25 | ||
| 2.1.1 Tissue Engineering and Scaffolds | 25 | ||
| 2.1.2 Cell–EMC Interaction via Integrin and Surface Topography | 27 | ||
| 2.2 RGD Nanospacing | 29 | ||
| 2.2.1 Nanospacing in 2-D Substrates with Different Stiffness | 29 | ||
| 2.2.2 3-D Substrates | 32 | ||
| 2.3 Surface Topography-Mediated Stem Cell Fate | 33 | ||
| 2.4 Scaffold-Mediated Gene Delivery by Biomimetic Coating | 33 | ||
| 2.4.1 Gene-Transfer | 33 | ||
| 2.4.2 DNA/CP Complex as a Drug-Delivery System by Biomimetic Coating | 35 | ||
| 2.4.3 Polyplexes as Drug-Delivery Systems | 37 | ||
| 2.4.4 Targeting the Nucleus | 37 | ||
| 2.4.5 Multi-Modal Delivery | 38 | ||
| 2.4.6 Scaffolds for Bone Tumor Destruction | 39 | ||
| 2.5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives | 40 | ||
| References | 41 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Protein-Based Stimuli Responsive Materials for Tissue Engineering | 45 | ||
| 3.1 Stimuli Responsiveness | 45 | ||
| 3.2 Types of Stimuli Responsiveness | 46 | ||
| 3.2.1 Temperature Responsiveness | 46 | ||
| 3.2.2 Electrical Responsiveness | 47 | ||
| 3.2.3 Light Responsiveness | 47 | ||
| 3.2.4 pH Responsive | 47 | ||
| 3.2.5 Redox Responsiveness | 48 | ||
| 3.2.6 Ion-Responsive Polymers | 48 | ||
| 3.2.7 Glucose Responsiveness | 48 | ||
| 3.2.8 Enzyme-Responsive Polymers | 48 | ||
| 3.3 Types of Polymeric Stimuli-Responsive Structures | 49 | ||
| 3.3.1 Hydrogels | 49 | ||
| 3.3.2 Micelles | 50 | ||
| 3.3.3 Dendrimers | 50 | ||
| 3.3.4 Nanoparticles | 50 | ||
| 3.4 Protein-Based Responsive Systems | 51 | ||
| 3.5 Application in Tissue Engineering | 53 | ||
| 3.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives | 55 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 55 | ||
| References | 56 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering | 62 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 62 | ||
| 4.2 The Properties of Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering | 63 | ||
| 4.2.1 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels | 63 | ||
| 4.2.2 Surface Chemistry of Hydrogels | 64 | ||
| 4.2.3 Biocompatibility and Biodegradability of Hydrogels | 65 | ||
| 4.2.4 Electrical Properties of Hydrogels | 65 | ||
| 4.3 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels | 65 | ||
| 4.3.1 Natural-Based Smart Hydrogels | 66 | ||
| 4.3.1.1 Chitosan | 67 | ||
| 4.3.1.2 Collagen and Gelatin | 69 | ||
| 4.3.1.3 Hyaluronic Acid | 70 | ||
| 4.3.1.4 Alginate | 71 | ||
| 4.3.2 Synthetic-Based Smart Hydrogels | 71 | ||
| 4.3.2.1 Temperature-Responsive Hydrogels | 72 | ||
| 4.3.2.2 pH-Responsive Hydrogels | 73 | ||
| 4.3.2.3 Electrical Field Responsive Hydrogels | 76 | ||
| 4.3.2.4 Bio-Responsive Hydrogels | 78 | ||
| 4.3.2.5 Magneto-Responsive Hydrogels | 82 | ||
| 4.3.2.6 Photo-Responsive Hydrogels | 85 | ||
| 4.3.2.7 Mechano-Responsive Hydrogels | 86 | ||
| 4.3.2.8 Self-Assembled Hydrogels | 88 | ||
| 4.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook | 90 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 91 | ||
| References | 92 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Self-Assembled Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering | 100 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 100 | ||
| 5.2 Peptide-Based Self-Assembled Scaffold | 101 | ||
| 5.2.1 Self-Assembled Peptide Unit | 102 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Ionic Self-Complementary Peptides (Peptide Lego) | 103 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Peptide Amphiphiles | 104 | ||
| 5.2.2 Functional Peptide Scaffolds | 107 | ||
| 5.3 Self-Assembled Synthetic Polymer Materials | 107 | ||
| 5.3.1 Self-Assembled Conjugated Polymers | 108 | ||
| 5.3.2 Biomimetic Nanofibrous Matrices | 108 | ||
| 5.3.3 Supramolecular Polymeric Materials | 111 | ||
| 5.4 Self-Assembled Hybrid Materials | 113 | ||
| 5.4.1 Self-Assembly Surface Modification Complexes | 113 | ||
| 5.4.2 Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Self-Assembled Materials | 115 | ||
| 5.5 Natural Biomolecular Matrix | 116 | ||
| 5.6 Conclusion | 117 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 117 | ||
| References | 117 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Natural Materials as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 124 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction to Natural Materials as Smart Scaffolds | 124 | ||
| 6.2 Collagen-Based Biomaterials as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 127 | ||
| 6.2.1 Applications of Collagen-Based Materials as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 128 | ||
| 6.3 Decellularized Extracellular Matrices as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 129 | ||
| 6.3.1 Applications of Decellularized Tissues as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 132 | ||
| 6.4 Natural Hydrogels as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 134 | ||
| 6.4.1 Chitosan | 134 | ||
| 6.4.1.1 Applications of Chitosan-Based Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 136 | ||
| 6.4.2 Hyaluronic Acid | 138 | ||
| 6.4.2.1 Applications of HA-Based Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 138 | ||
| 6.4.3 Chondroitin Sulfate and Heparan Sulfate/Heparin | 139 | ||
| 6.4.3.1 Applications of Chondroitin Sulfate- and Heparan Sulfate/Heparin-Based Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 140 | ||
| 6.5 Self-Assembling Peptides as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 140 | ||
| 6.5.1 RAD16 Peptides | 141 | ||
| 6.5.1.1 Applications of RAD16 Self-Assembling Peptides as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 143 | ||
| 6.5.2 P11 β-Sheet Tapes | 143 | ||
| 6.5.2.1 Applications of P11 β-Sheet Tapes as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 144 | ||
| 6.5.3 Q11 β-Sheet Tapes | 144 | ||
| 6.5.3.1 Applications of Q11 β-Sheet Tapes as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 144 | ||
| 6.5.4 β-Hairpin Peptides | 145 | ||
| 6.5.4.1 Applications of β-Hairpin Peptides as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 145 | ||
| 6.5.5 Elastin-Like Peptides | 146 | ||
| 6.5.5.1 Applications of Elastin-Like Peptides as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 146 | ||
| 6.5.6 Peptide Amphiphiles | 146 | ||
| 6.5.6.1 Applications of Peptide Amphiphiles as Smart Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering | 147 | ||
| 6.6 Calcium Phosphate-Based Materials as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 148 | ||
| 6.6.1 Applications of Calcium Phosphate-Based Materials as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 149 | ||
| 6.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions | 149 | ||
| List of Abbreviations | 150 | ||
| References | 151 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Engineering Stem Cell Niche and Stem Cell–Material Interactions | 163 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 163 | ||
| 7.2 Engineering the Stem Cell Niche | 165 | ||
| 7.2.1 Influence of Topography | 167 | ||
| 7.2.2 Influence of Cell Patterning | 168 | ||
| 7.2.3 Influence of Surface Chemistry | 170 | ||
| 7.2.4 Influence of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Substrates | 172 | ||
| 7.2.4.1 Physical Properties | 172 | ||
| 7.2.4.2 Mechanical Properties | 173 | ||
| 7.3 Changing from 2D to 3D Culture Systems for Stem Cell Niche Engineering | 175 | ||
| 7.3.1 Transition from 2D to 3D Culture Systems | 175 | ||
| 7.3.2 Influence of the Physical and Mechanical Properties of a 3D Scaffold | 177 | ||
| 7.3.3 Influence of 3D Patterning and 3D Scaffold Design Containing Biochemical Cues | 181 | ||
| 7.4 Future Perspectives | 183 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 186 | ||
| References | 186 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Smart Biomaterials with Smart Surfaces for Stem Cell Culture | 197 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 197 | ||
| 8.2 Photoresponsive Smart Biomaterials for Stem Cell Culture | 199 | ||
| 8.3 Smart Biomaterials Coated with Recombinant Proteins for Stem Cell Culture | 205 | ||
| 8.4 Thixotropic Smart Hydrogels for Stem Cell Culture | 206 | ||
| 8.5 Thermoresponsive Smart Biomaterials for Stem Cell Culture | 210 | ||
| 8.5.1 Thermoresponsive Polysaccharide Smart Biomaterials | 210 | ||
| 8.5.2 Synthetic Thermoresponsive Smart Biomaterials | 211 | ||
| 8.5.2.1 Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) Smart Biomaterials | 212 | ||
| 8.5.2.2 Elastin-Like Polypeptide Smart Biomaterials | 221 | ||
| 8.6 Small Molecule-Controlled Smart Biomaterials for Stem Cell Culture | 224 | ||
| 8.7 Conclusions and Perspectives | 225 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 226 | ||
| References | 227 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Conducting Polymers as Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering | 239 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 239 | ||
| 9.2 Properties Critical to Tissue Engineering | 241 | ||
| 9.2.1 Electrical Conduction | 241 | ||
| 9.2.2 Biocompatibility | 243 | ||
| 9.2.3 Bio-Functionalization | 247 | ||
| 9.2.4 Electroactuation | 250 | ||
| 9.2.5 Micro/Nanofabrication Processability | 251 | ||
| 9.3 Application in Tissue Engineering | 254 | ||
| 9.3.1 Fundamental Studies | 254 | ||
| 9.3.2 Electroactive Nerve Conduits | 258 | ||
| 9.4 Future Perspectives | 262 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 263 | ||
| References | 263 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Silica Materials as Smart Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 269 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 269 | ||
| 10.2 Silicon-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 270 | ||
| 10.2.1 Porous Silicon Scaffold–Cell Interactions | 272 | ||
| 10.2.2 Silica-Based Composites | 275 | ||
| 10.3 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Hard Tissue Engineering | 276 | ||
| 10.3.1 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering | 278 | ||
| 10.3.2 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Dental Regeneration | 285 | ||
| 10.4 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Soft Tissue Engineering | 287 | ||
| 10.4.1 Silica Gel Encapsulating Pancreatic Islets for Insulin Production | 287 | ||
| 10.4.2 Use of Silicon-Based Materials for Nerve Tissue Engineering | 288 | ||
| 10.4.3 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering | 293 | ||
| 10.4.4 Silica-Based Scaffolds for Wound Healing Applications | 295 | ||
| 10.4.5 Silica-Based Systems for Ophthalmic Applications | 295 | ||
| 10.4.6 Silica-Based Materials for Ossicular Replacement | 296 | ||
| 10.5 Silicon Micromachining Techniques in Tissue Engineering | 297 | ||
| 10.6 Molecular Imprinted Silica Scaffolds | 297 | ||
| 10.7 Silica Bio-Replication Techniques | 298 | ||
| 10.8 Silica-Based Coatings for Stenting Applications | 299 | ||
| 10.9 Future Perspectives | 299 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 299 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Functional Nucleic Acid Incorporated Materials for Cell Therapy and Tissue Engineering | 306 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 306 | ||
| 11.2 Nucleic Acids as a Structural Material for Tissue Engineering | 308 | ||
| 11.3 Nucleic Acids as Therapeutics | 309 | ||
| 11.3.1 cDNA and mRNA | 309 | ||
| 11.3.2 Non-Coding Nucleic Acids | 311 | ||
| 11.4 Nanomaterials for Nucleic Acid Delivery to Stem Cells | 312 | ||
| 11.4.1 Viruses for Gene Delivery to Stem Cells | 312 | ||
| 11.4.1.1 Adenoviral Vectors | 313 | ||
| 11.4.1.2 Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors | 313 | ||
| 11.4.1.3 Retroviral and Lentiviral Vectors | 315 | ||
| 11.4.1.4 Baculovirus Vectors | 316 | ||
| 11.4.2 Non-Viral Gene Delivery Vectors | 317 | ||
| 11.4.2.1 Protein Transduction Domains (PTDs) | 317 | ||
| 11.4.2.2 Liposomes | 317 | ||
| 11.4.2.3 Immunoliposomes | 319 | ||
| 11.4.2.4 Calcium Phosphate (CaP) | 319 | ||
| 11.4.2.5 Cationic Peptides and Polysaccharides | 319 | ||
| 11.4.2.6 Poly-l-lysine (PLL) | 320 | ||
| 11.4.2.7 Poly(β-amino esters) (PBAE) | 320 | ||
| 11.4.2.8 Hyaluronic Acid–Polyethylenimine (HA–PEI) | 320 | ||
| 11.4.2.9 Polybutylcyanoacrylate (PBCA) | 320 | ||
| 11.4.2.10 Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) Dendrimers | 321 | ||
| 11.5 Modified Stem Cells for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine | 321 | ||
| 11.5.1 Cardiac Tissue Engineering | 321 | ||
| 11.5.2 Bone and Cartilage Tissue Engineering | 323 | ||
| 11.5.3 Neurological Tissue Engineering | 324 | ||
| 11.6 Conclusion | 325 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 325 | ||
| References | 326 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Smart Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes for Tissue Engineering | 330 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 330 | ||
| 12.2 Fundamentals of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes | 332 | ||
| 12.3 Cytotoxicity and Biocompatibility of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes | 334 | ||
| 12.4 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes for Neuron Tissue Engineering Research | 339 | ||
| 12.5 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes for Bone Tissue Engineering | 342 | ||
| 12.6 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphenes for Skin, Cartilage and Cardiac Regeneration | 347 | ||
| 12.7 Conclusion | 350 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 351 | ||
| References | 351 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Smart Functional Porous Materials for Tissue Engineering | 358 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 358 | ||
| 13.2 Bioinspired Functional Materials | 360 | ||
| 13.3 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 367 | ||
| 13.4 Hierarchical Micro/Nanostructured Scaffolds | 371 | ||
| 13.5 Multiphasic Scaffolds | 373 | ||
| 13.6 Functional Hydrogel Scaffolds | 378 | ||
| 13.7 Scaffold Architectures Promoting Vascularization | 383 | ||
| 13.8 Future Directions and Conclusions | 386 | ||
| References | 389 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Smart Nanofibrous Materials for Tissue Engineering | 401 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 401 | ||
| 14.2 Materials for Smart Nanofibers | 403 | ||
| 14.3 Fabrication of Nanofibrous Scaffolds | 405 | ||
| 14.4 Application of Smart Nanofibers in Tissue Engineering | 407 | ||
| 14.4.1 Controlled Molecular Release from Responsive Polymers | 407 | ||
| 14.4.2 Piezoelectric Nanofibers for the Electrical Stimulation of Cells | 410 | ||
| 14.4.3 Nanofiber-Actuated Mechanotransduction | 412 | ||
| 14.4.4 Other Uses of Smart Responses in Nanofibrous Scaffolds | 414 | ||
| 14.5 Conclusion | 415 | ||
| 14.5.1 Summary | 415 | ||
| 14.5.2 Future Perspective | 415 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 415 | ||
| References | 416 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Thermosensitive Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering | 418 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction | 418 | ||
| 15.2 N-Isopropylacrylamide Copolymers | 419 | ||
| 15.2.1 Bone Tissue Engineering | 420 | ||
| 15.2.2 Myocardial Infarction | 421 | ||
| 15.2.3 Soft Tissue | 422 | ||
| 15.3 Chitosan and Related Derivatives | 423 | ||
| 15.4 Pluronic and Its Derivatives | 425 | ||
| 15.5 PEG/PLA Block Copolymers | 426 | ||
| 15.6 PEG/PLGA Block Copolymers | 427 | ||
| 15.7 PEG/PCL Block Copolymers | 429 | ||
| 15.8 Dual-Responsive Biodegradable Hydrogels | 432 | ||
| 15.9 Others | 433 | ||
| 15.10 Conclusions | 433 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 434 | ||
| References | 434 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Photo-Mediated Biomaterial Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 441 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 441 | ||
| 16.2 Photo-Mediated Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering | 443 | ||
| 16.2.1 Fabrication Methods | 449 | ||
| 16.2.2 Two-Photon Absorption | 450 | ||
| 16.2.3 Molecular Design for Two-Photon Absorption | 452 | ||
| 16.2.4 Fabrication of Photo-Mediated Biomaterial Scaffolds | 454 | ||
| 16.2.5 Photo-Mediated Smart Biomaterials | 460 | ||
| 16.3 Conclusion | 464 | ||
| References | 464 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Enzyme-Mediated Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering | 469 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 469 | ||
| 17.2 Enzyme-Triggered Degradation of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering | 471 | ||
| 17.3 Controlled Release of Growth Factors from Scaffolds by Enzymatic Action | 473 | ||
| 17.4 Enzymatic Construction of Scaffolds for 3D Cell Cultivation | 475 | ||
| 17.5 Strategies for Enzyme-Responsive Scaffolds | 476 | ||
| 17.5.1 Enzyme-Degradable Hydrogels | 476 | ||
| 17.5.1.1 Polymer-Based Hydrogels | 476 | ||
| 17.5.1.2 Supramolecular Hydrogels | 478 | ||
| 17.5.2 Enzyme-Responsive Surfaces | 479 | ||
| 17.5.3 Strategies for Enzymatic Hydrogelation | 480 | ||
| 17.5.3.1 Transglutaminase (TGase) | 480 | ||
| 17.5.3.2 Tyrosinase | 482 | ||
| 17.5.3.3 Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) | 483 | ||
| General Strategies for HRP-Catalyzed Gelation.Kaplan et al. demonstrated the preparation of hydrogels via HRP catalysis using po... | 483 | ||
| HRP-Catalyzed Gelation Systems Without Exogenous H2O2.In general, H2O2, which is needed to activate HRP, is directly supplied as... | 484 | ||
| 17.6 Conclusion | 486 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 487 | ||
| References | 487 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Magnetic-Responsive Materials for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine | 491 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 491 | ||
| 18.1.1 Magnetic Forces in Living Systems | 491 | ||
| 18.1.2 Magnetic Force Tissue Engineering | 492 | ||
| 18.2 Magnetic Particles for TERM Applications | 493 | ||
| 18.2.1 Properties of Magnetic Particles | 493 | ||
| 18.2.2 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) | 494 | ||
| 18.2.3 Coating and Functionalization of Magnetic Particles | 494 | ||
| 18.2.4 Dimension Oriented Applications of Magnetic Particles | 496 | ||
| 18.3 Cell Response to Magnetic Elements | 497 | ||
| 18.3.1 Cytotoxicity, Internalization and Clearance | 497 | ||
| 18.3.2 Mechanosensing and Mechanotransduction Pathways | 501 | ||
| 18.4 Magnetic Responsive 3D Systems | 502 | ||
| 18.4.1 Magnetic Systems: Spheres, Capsules and Liposomes | 503 | ||
| 18.4.2 Smart Magnetic Gels | 508 | ||
| 18.4.3 Magnetic Responsive 3D Scaffolds | 511 | ||
| 18.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives | 512 | ||
| Financial Disclosure | 514 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 514 | ||
| References | 514 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Magnetic-Responsive Materials as Smart Scaffolds for Stem Cells | 520 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 520 | ||
| 19.2 Advantages of Magnetic-Based Approaches | 521 | ||
| 19.2.1 Controllable Sensitive Differentiation | 521 | ||
| 19.2.2 Efficient Cellular Retention in Transplantation | 523 | ||
| 19.3 Magnetic Actuation Strategies for Differentiation | 523 | ||
| 19.3.1 Magnetic Particles in Magnetic Actuation | 523 | ||
| 19.3.2 Cell Signal Activation Techniques Using Magnetic Particles | 524 | ||
| 19.4 Magnetic Actuation Strategies for Stem Cell Tissue Engineering | 528 | ||
| 19.4.1 Scaffold-Free Magnetic Tissue Engineering | 528 | ||
| 19.4.2 Magnetic Cell Invasion into the Scaffold | 529 | ||
| 19.4.3 Magnetic Biomaterials for Scaffolds | 530 | ||
| 19.5 Concluding Remarks | 532 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 533 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Multifunctional Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering | 538 | ||
| 20.1 Introduction | 538 | ||
| 20.2 Biomimetic Materials | 540 | ||
| 20.2.1 Natural/Natural Biomimetic Materials | 540 | ||
| 20.2.2 Surface Modification of Functional Composites | 542 | ||
| 20.2.3 Modification of the Mechanical Properties of Functional Composites | 543 | ||
| 20.3 Multifunctional Smart Materials | 545 | ||
| 20.3.1 Thermosensitive Materials | 545 | ||
| 20.3.2 pH-Sensitive Materials | 546 | ||
| 20.3.3 Other Sensitive Materials | 547 | ||
| 20.4 Multifunctional Materials for Tissue-Engineering Applications | 548 | ||
| 20.4.1 Bone Engineering | 550 | ||
| 20.4.2 Articular Cartilage and Tendon Ligament Engineering | 550 | ||
| 20.4.3 Soft Skin Tissue Engineering | 552 | ||
| 20.4.4 Breast Tissue Engineering | 554 | ||
| 20.4.5 Vascular Graft Tissue Engineering | 555 | ||
| 20.4.6 Meniscus Tissue Engineering | 556 | ||
| 20.4.7 Corneal Tissue Engineering | 556 | ||
| 20.5 Future Directions, Conclusions, and Perspectives | 559 | ||
| References | 559 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Fabrication of Multifunctional Materials for Cell Transplantation by Microfluidics | 566 | ||
| 21.1 Introduction | 566 | ||
| 21.2 Design of Biomaterials | 568 | ||
| 21.3 Properties of Biomaterials | 570 | ||
| 21.4 Biofunctionality | 571 | ||
| 21.5 Fabrication of Materials for Cell Transplantation by Alginate | 573 | ||
| 21.5.1 Preparation of Spherical Particles by Alginate | 574 | ||
| 21.5.2 T-Junction Microchip Methods | 578 | ||
| 21.5.3 Cross Junction Microchip Methods | 581 | ||
| 21.5.4 Microcapillary Coaxial Device Methods | 584 | ||
| 21.6 Fabrication of Materials for Cell Transplantation by Agarose | 586 | ||
| 21.7 Fabrication of Materials for Cell Transplantation by Synthetic Polymers | 588 | ||
| 21.8 Preparation of Fibers and Ribbons | 591 | ||
| 21.9 “Living Microchips” | 600 | ||
| 21.10 Conclusions | 603 | ||
| References | 604 | ||
| Subject Index | 610 |