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The Theory and Practice of Democratic Therapeutic Community Treatment

The Theory and Practice of Democratic Therapeutic Community Treatment

Rex Haigh | Steve Pearce

(2017)

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Abstract

Democratic therapeutic communities have been set up all over the world, but until now there has not been a manual that sets out the underlying theories, and describes successful practice. Based on their own substantial experience and expertise, the authors of this new textbook explain how to set up and run modern therapeutic communities as effective evidence-based interventions for personality disorder and other common mental health conditions.

Including detailed templates and practical information alongside a wider historical context, this encyclopaedic handbook will enable clinicians to develop and implement a democratic therapeutic community model with confidence. Highlighting the importance of belonging to a wider community, this book also shows how to ensure the needs of patients are considered and met, and that patients themselves can see in detail what this approach entails. This is an invaluable resource for clinicians and service commissioners working in the field of recovery from personality disorder, as well as those working in mental health and healthcare. This book also provides a useful model for professionals working in prisons and the justice system, long-term drug and alcohol rehabilitation and education, and students of group analytic, psychotherapy, and counselling courses.


This book is a wonderful blend of academic prose and radical thinking. It is about the person as well as the 'illness', and engaging with someone who is struggling with themselves, whatever the chemistry of their brain. This is how-to advice on a level playing field of 'democracy', where the person will always have to take a personal responsibility for how they handle their relationships. Psychiatry has to be about lessons for living and not just a top-down medicalisation that removes the skills of decision-making and agency. Read it and learn not just about humans in distress but reflect on our profession in disorder.
Bob Hinshelwood, Emeritus Professor of Psychoanalysis, University of Essex
This superb and important book, written by two of the most knowledgeable and experienced proponents of Therapeutic Communities, tracks their history, theory and detailed workings from assessment to treatment. It is a book that teaches us emancipating approaches which holds the key to a more humanised psychiatry.
Dr Heather Castillo, Independent Consultant and author of Personality Disorder: Temperament or Trauma and The Reality of Recovery in Personality Disorder
The NHS is looking for a new interpersonal model of health care provision that will heal patients and retain staff. The values of the Therapeutic Community (empowerment, creativity, search for meaning and democracy) are core parts of what is currently missing. This book is a 'must read' and 'must act' for any thoughtful purchaser, patient or provider - before it is too late.
John Cox, Past President, Royal College of Psychiatrists, Professor Emeritus, Keele University, UK

Dr Steve Pearce is a Consultant Psychiatrist and Programme Director for personality disorder services in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire. He is Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Therapeutic Communities, Chair of the NHS England Residential Personality Disorder Clinical Reference Group, Past President of the British and Irish Group for the Study of Personality Disorder, and Past Chair of the Royal College of Psychiatrists Quality Network for Therapeutic Communities.

Rex Haigh is a Consultant Psychiatrist for personality disorder services in East Berkshire. He is also Honorary Professor of Therapeutic Environments and Relational Health in Nottingham University's School of Sociology and Social Policy. He is Founder and Past Chair of the Royal College of Psychiatrists Quality Network for Therapeutic Communities, Founder and Chair of the Royal College of Psychiatrists Enabling Environments Network and Past President of the Association of Therapeutic Communities.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
The Theory and Practice of Democratic Therapeutic Community Treatment by Steve Pearce and Rex Haigh 3
Acknowledgements 6
Preface 12
Part 1 - History 17
1. A History of Therapeutic Communities 18
Geel and the mentally afflicted pilgrims 18
Moral treatment 19
Therapeutic education and social pedagogy 19
Wartime UK experiments, 1939–45 21
Social psychiatry 22
Criminal justice and offending behaviour 24
Concept Houses, drug-free and addiction TCs 25
Antipsychiatry and ‘unlabelled living’ 26
Personality disorder TCs 26
Part 2 - Concepts 29
2. Why Therapeutic Communities 30
Critical theory 33
Antipsychiatry 34
Critical psychiatry 37
Biomedical domination and the role of the pharmaceutical industry 41
The loss of meaning and context 42
Reductionist research paradigms 44
Postpsychiatry 44
Other relevant ‘movements’ in psychiatry 45
The quintessence of a therapeutic environment 48
3. TC-Specific Theory 53
Specific therapeutic factors in democratic therapeutic communities 53
Therapeutic methods in democratic therapeutic communities 55
The function/structure-based approach – Rapoport 55
The culture of enquiry – Tom Main 57
Flattening of the authority pyramid and the analysis of all events – David Clark 57
A living-learning situation – Maxwell Jones 58
The milieu and the use of member expertise 59
Confidentiality and respect/no secrets/openness 59
4. Belongingness 62
Belongingness and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 62
Belongingness as a therapeutic factor 64
Therapeutic environments in which belongingness operates 65
Therapeutic communities and belongingness 66
5. Responsible Agency 71
The wedge theory of responsibility and choice 72
Self-efficacy 73
Empowerment 73
The nature of responsible agency 73
Willed action and the nature of desire 75
The muscle model of the will 75
Other techniques promoting responsible agency 78
Responsibility without blame 79
Links between blame and shame 82
Implications for DTC practice 82
6. Social Learning 85
Reinforcement 85
Social learning 87
Relevance to TC practice 92
7. Emotional Progression and Narrative 94
Emotional progression in DTC 94
Stages of emotional progression 95
8. The Use of Psychodynamic Theory and Techniques 105
Object relations theory 105
Splitting and borderline functioning 106
Unconscious defence mechanisms, and their relevance to TC practice 107
Paralleling behaviour 110
Interpretation 110
Transference and transference interpretation 111
Boundaries and containment 112
Therapist activity in democratic therapeutic communities 113
9. Group Analytic Influences and Theories 114
The roots of group analysis 114
The basic law of group dynamics 117
Key group analytic concepts relevant in therapeutic communities 118
Transference and countertransference in groups 122
Group analytic interpretation 123
Group-as-a-whole 123
Differences between therapeutic community groups and group analytic groups 124
Interpersonal group psychotherapy and Yalom’s therapeutic factors 125
10. Group Process and Systems 128
The primacy of groups 128
The impact of social psychology research on TC theory and practice 130
Leadership in DTCs 134
Systems theory influences 135
Systems theory in non-family groups 138
11. Evidence for Therapeutic Community Effectiveness 139
Concept (drug-free) TC research 139
Democratic TC research 141
TaCIT – a randomised controlled trial of democratic therapeutic community treatment 150
Future research directions 151
12. General Approach and Principles 152
Application of theory 153
Milieu therapy 153
Democratisation 153
Permissiveness 156
Reality confrontation 157
Communalism 157
Social analysis of events 158
Culture of enquiry 159
Freeing of communications 159
Flattened hierarchy 161
The living learning experience 162
Part 3 - Practice 163
13. Phases and Timing 164
Phase 1: Engagement and stabilisation 165
Phase 2: Assessment and preparation 174
Phase 3: Intensive treatment 177
Phase 4: Rehabilitation and recovery 179
14. Assessment and Selection 181
Dimensional approaches and severity 182
The importance of groups 183
Intolerance of groups 185
Members who may adversely affect the culture 185
The possibility of harm from DTC treatment 186
Heterogeneous group formation 187
Selection processes 187
Dropout from DTC treatment 188
15. Democratic Therapeutic Community Structure 189
Assessment and preparation 189
Joining and leaving 192
Therapeutic community size 195
Weekly structure 195
Daily structure 195
Special/crisis meetings 196
Mentoring and peer support 197
Meeting structure 199
The place of play in DTC 203
Specialist psychotherapeutic approaches 204
Milieu time 205
Therapy breaks 206
Moving on groups 207
Follow-up 208
16. Boundary Maintenance 209
The implementation of boundaries in DTC 209
Time boundaries 210
Disturbances and distractions in groups 210
Hierarchy of consequences of boundary violations 211
Relational risk management and positive risk management 214
Concurrent psychological treatment while a member of DTC 216
Other boundaries 216
Drugs and alcohol in DTC 220
Medication in DTC 222
Abuse of prescribed medication and medicinal substances 227
Somatisation and somatoform disorders 228
Special treatment 228
17. Quality of Relationships and Therapeutic Method 230
A different kind of relationship 230
Flattened hierarchy 230
Authenticity 231
Working alongside 231
Acting ‘as if’ 232
Uncertainty 232
Safety and transparency 232
Management of personal information for TC staff 233
Making the diagnosis of personality disorder 234
Co-morbidity with mental illness in personality disorder DTC treatment 236
18. The Use of Psychoeducational and Humanistic Methods 238
Mindfulness 238
Mentalisation 238
Coping skills 239
Assertiveness and communication skills 239
Descriptions of approaches used in the large group 240
Action methods 241
Approaches derived from transactional analysis 243
Diagnostic personality disorder group 245
Family and Friends (carer’s) programme for personality disorder 245
19. Antitherapeutic Processes 248
The difference between group/peer pressure and TC process 248
Bullying and scapegoating 249
Subgroup formation 250
Persecutory interventions 251
On not ‘trusting the process’ (or group) 252
Summary 252
Part 4 - Organisational Aspects 253
20. Organisational Relationships 254
Commissioning 254
Management 256
Governance and regulation 257
Referrers and colleagues 257
Local neighbours 258
Professional network organisations 259
21. Organisational Development 260
Planning a therapeutic community service for personality disorder 260
Formation of the team 262
Premises 264
Induction and initial training 265
Continuous improvement 266
Organic growth 267
Innovation 268
Part 5 - Training 271
22. Training – Introduction 272
Practitioner requirements 272
A curriculum of therapeutic community training 273
23. Experiential Training for Working in Therapeutic Communities 275
The living learning experience 275
Other group relations courses 277
Personal therapy 278
24. Supervised Clinical Practice 279
Pre-briefs and debriefs 279
Formal supervision 280
Sensitivity groups and staff groups 280
Profession-specific supervision 281
Appendix 1 - Definitions 283
Appendix 2 - Community of Communities 291
Appendix 3 - Enabling Environments 302
Appendix 4 - DTC Preparatory Group Documents and Policies 315
Appendix 5 - DTC Programme Documents 322
Appendix 6 - Moving On Group 342
Appendix 7 - Family and Friends Programme Information Sheet 344
Appendix 8 - Training Resources 346
Further Reading 360
References 361
Subject Index 376
Author Index 382