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Book Details
Abstract
Environmental analysis techniques have advanced due to the use of nanotechnologies in improving the detection sensitivity and miniaturization of the devices in analytical procedures. These allow for developments such as increases in analyte concentration, the removal of interfering species and improvements in the detection limits. Bridging a gap in the literature, this book uniquely brings together state-of-the-art research in the applications of novel nanomaterials to each of the classical components of environmental analysis, namely sample preparation and extraction, separation and identification by spectroscopic techniques. Special attention is paid to those approaches that are considered greener and reduce the cost of the analysis process both in terms of chemicals and time consumption.
Advanced undergraduates, graduates and researchers at the forefront of environmental science and engineering will find this book a good source of information. It will also help regulators, decision makers, surveillance agencies and the organizations assessing the impact of pollutants on the environment.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Advanced Environmental Analysis Applications of Nanomaterials, Volume 1 | i | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Contents | vii | ||
| Section I - Introduction-Perspective of Analytical Sciences, Properties, Mechanism of Adsorption on Nanomaterials | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Perspective on Analytical Sciences and Nanotechnology | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.1.1 Nanotechnology | 4 | ||
| 1.1.2 Analytical Sciences | 6 | ||
| 1.1.2.1 Significance of Nanotechnology in Analytical Sciences | 8 | ||
| 1.2 Facets of Analytical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology | 9 | ||
| 1.2.1 Instrumentation | 10 | ||
| 1.2.1.1 Micro-Electromechanical and Nano-Electromechanical Systems | 11 | ||
| 1.2.1.2 Miniaturization in Analytical sciences | 12 | ||
| 1.2.1.2.1 Nanostructured Materials.Nanostructured materials can be defined as those materials whose structural elements (clusters or molec... | 13 | ||
| 1.3 Nanoparticles | 15 | ||
| 1.3.1 Metal Nanoparticles | 15 | ||
| 1.3.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles | 17 | ||
| 1.3.3 Quantum Dots | 18 | ||
| 1.3.4 Carbon Allotropes | 19 | ||
| 1.3.5 Molecularly Imprinted Polymeric Nanoparticles | 21 | ||
| 1.4 Analytical Applications of Nanostructured Materials | 21 | ||
| 1.4.1 Nano Drug Delivery Application | 22 | ||
| 1.4.2 Energy Application | 23 | ||
| 1.4.3 Environmental Applications | 24 | ||
| 1.4.4 Electronic Applications | 25 | ||
| 1.4.5 Food Industry Applications | 27 | ||
| 1.5 Biomimetics | 28 | ||
| 1.5.1 Nanobiosensors | 29 | ||
| 1.6 Limitations of Nanotechnology in Analytical Sciences | 30 | ||
| 1.7 Conclusions | 31 | ||
| References | 31 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Novel Synthetic Techniques for Nanomaterials | 35 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 35 | ||
| 2.2 Experimental | 38 | ||
| 2.2.1 Synthetic Aspects | 38 | ||
| 2.2.2 Structural and Microstructural Characterization | 39 | ||
| 2.2.3 BET Analysis | 40 | ||
| 2.2.4 Impedance Spectroscopy | 40 | ||
| 2.3 Results | 41 | ||
| 2.3.1 Structural Characterization | 41 | ||
| 2.3.2 Microstructural Characterization | 41 | ||
| 2.3.3 BET Surface Area Analysis | 45 | ||
| 2.3.4 Ionic Conductivity Measurements by Impedance Spectroscopy | 46 | ||
| 2.3.4.1 Various Data Representations and Equivalent Circuit Fitting | 46 | ||
| 2.3.4.2 Resistivity vs. Temperature Trends | 49 | ||
| 2.3.4.3 Dielectric Properties of Single-Mode Microwave-Sintered Samples | 51 | ||
| 2.3.4.4 DC Bias IS Measurements in 5 Minutes Single-Mode Microwave-Sintered Pellets | 51 | ||
| 2.3.4.5 Undoped CeO2−δ | 53 | ||
| 2.4 Conclusions | 55 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 56 | ||
| References | 56 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Fractal Properties of Nanoparticle Aggregation | 58 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction of Nanoparticle and Fractal Geometry | 58 | ||
| 3.2 Fractal Model for Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluids | 62 | ||
| 3.3 Fractal Aggregation of Nanoparticles | 66 | ||
| 3.4 Fractal Analysis of Yield Stress Property of Nanoparticle Aggregation | 69 | ||
| 3.5 Conclusions | 70 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 71 | ||
| References | 71 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Removal of Pollutants from the Environment Using Sorbents and Nanocatalysts | 74 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 74 | ||
| 4.2 Removal of Sulfur Compounds from Fuels | 75 | ||
| 4.3 Elimination of Heavy Metals from Wastewater | 80 | ||
| 4.4 Separation of the Dangerous Radionuclides from Liquid Nuclear Wastes | 83 | ||
| 4.5 Conclusion | 84 | ||
| References | 84 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Mechanism of Adsorption on Nanomaterials | 90 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 90 | ||
| 5.2 Adsorption Mechanism | 92 | ||
| 5.2.1 Adsorption Isotherms | 92 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Langmuir Model | 92 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm | 92 | ||
| 5.2.1.3 Temkin Isotherm | 93 | ||
| 5.2.1.4 Dubinin–Radushkevich Model | 93 | ||
| 5.2.1.5 Harkins–Jura and Halsey Isotherms | 94 | ||
| 5.2.1.6 Redlich–Peterson Isotherm | 94 | ||
| 5.2.1.7 Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) Isotherm | 94 | ||
| 5.2.2 Adsorption Kinetics and Thermodynamics | 94 | ||
| 5.2.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics | 95 | ||
| 5.2.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetics | 95 | ||
| 5.2.2.3 Intraparticle Diffusion Model | 95 | ||
| 5.2.2.4 Thermodynamic Study | 95 | ||
| 5.2.3 Adsorption of Pollutants by Nanoparticles | 96 | ||
| 5.2.3.1 Silver Nanoparticles | 96 | ||
| 5.2.3.2 Iron Nanoparticles | 96 | ||
| 5.2.3.3 TiO2 Nanoparticles | 97 | ||
| 5.2.3.4 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles | 98 | ||
| 5.2.4 Adsorption of Pollutants by CNTs | 99 | ||
| 5.2.5 Adsorption of Pollutants by Dendritic Nanopolymers | 103 | ||
| 5.3 Future Prospects | 104 | ||
| 5.4 Conclusion | 105 | ||
| References | 105 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Adsorption and Desorption on Nanostructured Materials | 112 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 112 | ||
| 6.2 Carbonaceous Nanomaterials as Nanoadsorbents | 116 | ||
| 6.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes as Nanoadsorbents | 116 | ||
| 6.2.2 Carbon Nanosheets as Nanoadsorbents | 118 | ||
| 6.3 Magnetic Nanomaterials as Nanoadsorbents | 119 | ||
| 6.4 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles as Adsorbents | 122 | ||
| 6.5 Metallic Nanomaterials as Adsorbents | 124 | ||
| 6.6 Clays as Nanoadsorbents | 125 | ||
| 6.6.1 Nanoclays as Adsorbents for Dyes | 126 | ||
| 6.6.2 Nanoclays as Adsorbents for Phenols | 127 | ||
| 6.6.3 Nanoclays as Adsorbents for Heavy Metals | 128 | ||
| 6.6.4 Nanoclays as Adsorbents for Gases | 129 | ||
| 6.7 Silicon-Based Nanomaterials as Nanoadsorbents | 131 | ||
| 6.7.1 Silicon-Based Nanoparticles as Nanoadsorbents | 131 | ||
| 6.7.2 Silicon-Based Nanotubes as Nanoadsorbents | 131 | ||
| 6.7.3 Silicon-Based Nanosheets as Nanoadsorbents | 132 | ||
| 6.8 Polymer-Based Nanoadsorbents | 132 | ||
| 6.9 Conclusion | 133 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 134 | ||
| References | 134 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Nanomaterials for Heavy Metal Removal | 139 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 139 | ||
| 7.2 Sources of Heavy Metal in the Environment | 140 | ||
| 7.3 Nanotechnology for Environment Remediation | 140 | ||
| 7.4 Types of Adsorbents | 142 | ||
| 7.4.1 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials | 142 | ||
| 7.4.1.1 Activated Carbon | 143 | ||
| 7.4.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes | 143 | ||
| 7.4.1.3 Graphenes | 144 | ||
| 7.4.2 Metal-Based Nanomaterials | 146 | ||
| 7.4.2.1 Metal Nanoparticles | 146 | ||
| 7.4.2.2 Bimetallic Nanoparticles | 148 | ||
| 7.4.3 Nanosized Metal Oxides | 150 | ||
| 7.4.3.1 Nanosized Iron Oxides | 151 | ||
| 7.4.3.2 Nanosized Zinc Oxides | 156 | ||
| 7.4.3.3 Nanosized Titanium Oxides | 158 | ||
| 7.4.4 Other Oxides | 159 | ||
| 7.5 Conclusion | 160 | ||
| References | 161 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Adsorption Selectivity of Boron Nitride Nanostructures Designed for Environmental Protection | 167 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 167 | ||
| 8.2 Experimental | 171 | ||
| 8.2.1 Auger Spectra | 171 | ||
| 8.2.2 Raman Spectra | 174 | ||
| 8.3 Theorizing | 176 | ||
| 8.3.1 Surface Reconstruction | 177 | ||
| 8.3.2 Particle Morphology | 180 | ||
| 8.3.3 Near-Surface Electric Field | 181 | ||
| 8.4 Estimates | 186 | ||
| 8.4.1 Ions | 186 | ||
| 8.4.2 Polar Molecules | 187 | ||
| 8.4.3 Nonpolar Molecules | 188 | ||
| 8.5 Conclusions | 190 | ||
| References | 191 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Environmental Applications of Iron-Containing Nanomaterials: Synthetic Routes, Structures, Compositions and Properties | 193 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 193 | ||
| 9.1.1 Nanomaterials | 194 | ||
| 9.1.2 General Data of Nanomaterials Containing Iron | 194 | ||
| 9.2 Syntheses | 197 | ||
| 9.2.1 Classic Routes | 198 | ||
| 9.2.2 Green Synthesis | 198 | ||
| 9.3 Remediation | 204 | ||
| 9.3.1 Organic Compounds | 204 | ||
| 9.3.2 Metals | 206 | ||
| 9.4 Disinfection | 209 | ||
| 9.5 Toxicity and Risks of Application of Iron Nanomaterials | 210 | ||
| 9.6 Conclusion | 214 | ||
| References | 215 | ||
| Section II - Sample Preparation and Extraction Techniques with Nanomaterials | 221 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Sample Preparation and Extraction Techniques Using Nanomaterials | 223 | ||
| 10.1 Important Aspects Prior to Quantitative Determination in Environmental Analysis | 223 | ||
| 10.2 Advanced Adsorption by Nanomaterials | 233 | ||
| 10.2.1 Nanometric Scale | 233 | ||
| 10.2.2 Interaction Mechanisms | 236 | ||
| 10.2.2.1 Adsorption Equilibrium | 238 | ||
| 10.2.3 Behavior of Nanomaterials in Analytical Media | 244 | ||
| 10.3 Nanoadsorbents | 246 | ||
| 10.3.1 Metallic Nanoparticles | 247 | ||
| 10.3.1.1 Powder Nanoparticles | 247 | ||
| 10.3.1.2 Mesoporous Nanoparticles | 248 | ||
| 10.3.1.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles | 249 | ||
| 10.3.2 Carbonaceous Nanomaterials | 251 | ||
| 10.3.2.1 Graphene | 251 | ||
| 10.3.2.2 Graphene Oxide | 255 | ||
| 10.3.2.3 Fullerenes | 256 | ||
| 10.3.2.4 Nanodiamonds | 257 | ||
| 10.3.2.5 Carbon Nanotubes | 257 | ||
| 10.3.3 Siliceous Nanomaterials | 260 | ||
| 10.3.4 Nanofibers | 262 | ||
| 10.3.4.1 Carbon Nanofibers | 263 | ||
| 10.3.4.2 Siliceous Nanofibers | 264 | ||
| 10.3.4.3 Inorganic Oxide Nanofibers | 264 | ||
| 10.3.4.4 Polymer Nanofibers | 265 | ||
| 10.3.5 Polymer Nanomaterials | 267 | ||
| 10.3.5.1 Nanoporous Polymers | 268 | ||
| 10.3.5.2 Metal–Organic Frameworks | 268 | ||
| 10.3.5.3 Dendrimers | 269 | ||
| 10.3.5.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers | 270 | ||
| 10.3.6 Nanoclays | 272 | ||
| References | 274 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Nanomaterials in Extraction Techniques | 284 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 284 | ||
| 11.2 Nanoparticles Used in Environmental Analysis | 285 | ||
| 11.2.1 Metallic Nanoparticles | 287 | ||
| 11.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes | 289 | ||
| 11.2.3 Graphene | 291 | ||
| 11.3 Applications of Nanoparticles in Sorptive Extraction Techniques | 293 | ||
| 11.3.1 Solid-Phase Extraction | 294 | ||
| 11.3.2 Solid-Phase Microextraction | 296 | ||
| 11.4 Conclusions | 300 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Pretreatment Processes for the Analysis of Organic Pollutants with Nanomaterials | 306 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 306 | ||
| 12.2 Role of Nanomaterials in the Sample Treatment Step | 307 | ||
| 12.3 Nanoparticles as Support | 307 | ||
| 12.3.1 Non-Magnetic | 307 | ||
| 12.3.2 Magnetic | 308 | ||
| 12.4 Nanomaterials as Sorbent Materials | 311 | ||
| 12.4.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) | 312 | ||
| 12.4.2 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials | 313 | ||
| 12.4.2.1 Fullerene | 313 | ||
| 12.4.2.2 Graphene | 314 | ||
| 12.4.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes | 320 | ||
| 12.4.2.3.1\rCarbon Nanotubes in SPE.Owing to their unique properties, CNTs have been recently used for the SPE of organic pollutants, using ... | 321 | ||
| 12.4.2.3.2\rDispersive Solid-Phase Extraction.The problems of conventional SPE with sample loading and elution can be avoided in dispersive-... | 326 | ||
| 12.4.2.3.3\rMagnetic CNTs.The introduction of magnetic properties facilitates the use of CNTs in DSPE, since an easier manipulation of CNTs ... | 327 | ||
| 12.4.2.3.4\rCNTs in Solid-Phase Microextraction.The development of novel SPME (see also Chapter 11, Section 11.3.2) coatings containing CNTs... | 331 | ||
| 12.4.3 Nanofiber-Based Sorbents | 337 | ||
| 12.4.3.1 Carbon-Based | 338 | ||
| 12.4.3.2 Polymer-Based | 339 | ||
| 12.4.4 Metal–Organic Framework Materials | 341 | ||
| 12.4.5 Metallic Nanoparticles | 344 | ||
| 12.4.5.1 Metal Nanoparticles | 344 | ||
| 12.4.5.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles | 345 | ||
| 12.5 Nanomaterials as Pseudo-Stationary Phase | 347 | ||
| 12.5.1 Nanoparticles in Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE) | 347 | ||
| 12.5.2 Nanoparticles in Liquid-Phase Microextraction | 348 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| Section III - Separation Techniques with Nanomaterials (Chromatography and Membranes Applications of Nanomaterials) | 355 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Separation Techniques with Nanomaterials: Chromatography and Membrane Applications of Nanomaterials | 357 | ||
| 13.1 Fundamentals and Theory of Nanomaterials in Separation Science | 357 | ||
| 13.1.1 Concepts and Theory of Nanomaterials in Chemical Analysis | 358 | ||
| 13.1.1.1 Main Types of Nanomaterials in Environmental Analysis | 359 | ||
| 13.2 Applications of Nanomaterials in Environmental Analysis | 364 | ||
| 13.2.1 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials in Environmental Analysis | 364 | ||
| 13.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles in Environmental Analysis | 367 | ||
| 13.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles in Environmental Analysis | 368 | ||
| 13.2.4 Quantum Dots in Environmental Analysis | 372 | ||
| 13.2.5 Graphene Nanoparticles in Environmental Analysis | 372 | ||
| 13.3 Conclusions and Future Direction | 375 | ||
| References | 375 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Advanced Environmental Engineering Separation Processes, Environmental Analysis and Application of Nanotechnology: A Far-Reaching Review | 377 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 377 | ||
| 14.2 Vision of the Present Treatise | 378 | ||
| 14.2.1 Purpose and Aim of the Present Study | 379 | ||
| 14.3 Global Ecological Balance, Provision of Clean Drinking Water and the Progress of Human Civilization | 379 | ||
| 14.3.1 Environmental Engineering Science: A New Beginning and Future Perspective | 380 | ||
| 14.3.2 Water Process Engineering, Environmental Separation Processes and the Vision of Tomorrow | 381 | ||
| 14.3.3 Water Quality: Scientific Perspectives | 381 | ||
| 14.3.3.1 Suspended Solids | 381 | ||
| 14.3.3.1.1\rSources.Solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles, or immiscible liquids. Inorganic solids, such a... | 381 | ||
| 14.3.3.1.2\rImpacts and Vision of Treatment.The impacts and vision of treatment of industrial wastewater and the future vision of environmen... | 382 | ||
| 14.3.3.2 Turbidity | 382 | ||
| 14.3.3.2.1\rSources.Most turbidity in surface waters results from the erosion of colloidal material, such as clay, silt, rock fragments and ... | 382 | ||
| 14.3.3.2.2\rImpacts and Vision of Treatment.When turbid water in a small, transparent container, such as a drinking glass, is held up to the... | 382 | ||
| 14.3.3.2.3\rMeasurement.Turbidity is measured photometrically by determining the percentage of light of a given intensity that is either abs... | 382 | ||
| 14.3.3.3 Color | 383 | ||
| 14.3.3.3.1\rSources.After contact with organic debris, such as leaves, conifer needles, weeds, or wood, water picks up tannins, humic acid, ... | 383 | ||
| 14.3.3.3.2\rImpact, Vision and Future.Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. In fact, given a choice, consumer... | 383 | ||
| 14.4 A Review of Important and Relevant Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Oxidation Technologies: A Vision for the Future... | 383 | ||
| 14.4.1 The Vision of Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Deep Introspection | 384 | ||
| 14.4.2 Use and Immense Importance of Selected Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment | 384 | ||
| 14.4.3 Wastewater Treatment by a Visionary Combination of Advanced Oxidation Processes and Conventional Biological Systems | 385 | ||
| 14.4.4 Ozonation: The Next Generation Environmental Engineering Technique | 387 | ||
| 14.4.5 Contribution of Membrane Separation Processes in the Advancement of Science | 387 | ||
| 14.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes: Vision, Current Status and Visionary Prospects | 387 | ||
| 14.5.1 A Review of Photochemical Processes in Wastewater Treatment | 388 | ||
| 14.5.2 An Introspection into Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Critical Overview | 389 | ||
| 14.6 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Non-Conventional Environmental Engineering Separation Processes | 390 | ||
| 14.6.1 Recent Scientific Pursuits in the Field of Membrane Separation Processes and Other Environmental Engineering Separation Pr... | 398 | ||
| 14.6.2 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Ozonation of Industrial Wastewater | 401 | ||
| 14.7 Milestones in the Research of Advanced Oxidation Processes | 404 | ||
| 14.7.1 Milestones and Unparalleled Achievements in Environmental Engineering Separation Processes | 404 | ||
| 14.8 Global Drinking Water Crisis and Application of Membrane Separation Processes | 404 | ||
| 14.8.1 Industrial Wastewater Treatment and the Application of Novel Separation Processes: A Definitive Vision for the Future | 405 | ||
| 14.8.2 Doctrine of Environmental Engineering Separation Processes and the World of Indomitable Challenges | 405 | ||
| 14.9 Scientific Cognizance, Visionary Future of Environmental Pollution Control and Environmental Analysis | 406 | ||
| 14.9.1 Visionary Environmental Analysis and the Progress of Science Ahead | 406 | ||
| 14.10 Application of Nanotechnology in Environmental Engineering and the Vision for the Future | 406 | ||
| 14.10.1 Nanofiltration, Application of Membrane Separation Processes and the Visionary Domain of Environmental Analysis | 407 | ||
| 14.11 Fouling: Difficulties and Plausible Solutions | 407 | ||
| 14.12 Advanced Environmental Analysis and Recent Scientific Research Thrust Areas | 407 | ||
| 14.13 Future Perspectives of Application of Novel Separation Processes and the Visionary Frontier Ahead | 408 | ||
| 14.13.1 Challenges, Difficulties and Barriers to Environmental Sustainability and Ecological Balance | 408 | ||
| 14.13.2 Environmental Sustainability and the Future of Science and Technology | 409 | ||
| 14.13.3 Challenges, Barriers and Vision in the Application of Environmental Separation Processes | 409 | ||
| 14.14 Environmental Analysis and Its Application to Relevant Environmental Separation Processes | 409 | ||
| 14.15 Future Targets, Future Vision and the March of Science and Engineering | 410 | ||
| 14.15.1 A Deep Introspection and the Road Towards the Future | 410 | ||
| 14.15.2 Challenges in Advanced Oxidation Processes and Membrane Separation Processes | 410 | ||
| 14.15.3 Challenges in the Research Areas of Environmental Engineering Separation Processes and the Relevant Domain of Advanced En... | 411 | ||
| 14.15.4 Successful Sustainable Development and Future Perspectives of Environmental Separation Processes | 411 | ||
| 14.16 Scientific Wisdom, Future of Separation Processes and the Wide Road Ahead | 411 | ||
| 14.16.1 Future Dimensions of Thoughts and Scientific Cognizance in the Field of Environmental Separation Processes and Environmen... | 412 | ||
| 14.16.2 Environmental Engineering Science: The Road Ahead and the Vision for the Future | 412 | ||
| 14.17 Conclusion | 413 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 413 | ||
| References | 413 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Application of Nanomaterials in Membrane Technology | 417 | ||
| 15.1 Membrane Technology | 417 | ||
| 15.1.1 Types of Membranes | 419 | ||
| 15.1.1.1 Isotropic Membranes | 420 | ||
| 15.1.1.1.1\rMicroporous Membranes.A microporous membrane has a rigid, highly voided structure with randomly distributed, interconnected pore... | 420 | ||
| 15.1.1.1.2\rNonporous, Dense Membranes.Nonporous, dense membranes consist of a dense film through which permeants are transported by diffusi... | 420 | ||
| 15.1.1.1.3\rElectrically Charged Membranes.Electrically charged membranes are either dense or microporous, while in most cases membranes are... | 421 | ||
| 15.1.1.2 Anisotropic Membranes | 421 | ||
| 15.1.1.3 Ceramic, Metal and Liquid Membranes | 421 | ||
| 15.1.2 Need for Nanocomposite Membranes | 422 | ||
| 15.2 Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite Membranes | 423 | ||
| 15.2.1 Synthesis of Nanocomposites | 425 | ||
| 15.2.1.1 Phase Inversion Method | 426 | ||
| 15.2.1.2 Sol–Gel Process | 428 | ||
| 15.2.1.3 In situ/Interfacial Polymerization | 428 | ||
| 15.2.2 Characterisation of Nanocomposites | 430 | ||
| 15.2.2.1 Measurement of Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution | 430 | ||
| 15.2.2.1.1\rBubble Gas Transport Method.This method is based on the measurement of the pressure necessary to blow air through a water-filled... | 431 | ||
| 15.2.2.1.2\rPermeability Method.Assuming the pores to be capillary in nature, the pore size can be determined by measuring the flux through ... | 432 | ||
| 15.2.2.1.3\rSolute Rejection Method.This is the method frequently used for industrial assessment of membranes. Usually membrane manufacturer... | 432 | ||
| 15.2.2.2 Micrographic Methods to Obtain Photographic Images | 433 | ||
| 15.2.2.3 Spectroscopic Methods | 433 | ||
| 15.2.2.4 Contact Angle Goniometer | 433 | ||
| 15.2.2.4.1\rStatic Contact Angle.The contact angle, θ, is the angle formed by a liquid at the three-phase boundary where the liquid, gas, an... | 434 | ||
| 15.2.2.5 Tensile Strength Measurements | 435 | ||
| 15.3 Nanocomposite Membranes in Water Treatment | 436 | ||
| 15.3.1 Conventional Nanocomposites | 437 | ||
| 15.3.2 Thin Film Nanocomposites | 439 | ||
| 15.3.3 Thin Film Composites with Nanocomposite Substrate | 440 | ||
| 15.4 Nanocomposite Membranes in Gas Separation | 441 | ||
| 15.4.1 Mixed Matrix Membrane Materials | 443 | ||
| 15.4.2 Effect of the Inorganic Dispersed Phase on Membrane Properties | 443 | ||
| 15.5 Challenges in Processing and Manufacturing Nanocomposite Membranes | 444 | ||
| 15.5.1 Challenges in the Fabrication of Nanocomposite Membranes | 445 | ||
| 15.5.2 Challenges in Scale-up and Integration | 448 | ||
| 15.5.3 Health and Environmental Safety | 449 | ||
| References | 450 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Nanocellulose: A Novel Support for Water Purification | 456 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 456 | ||
| 16.2 Preparation of Nanocellulose | 457 | ||
| 16.2.1 Classification of Nanocellulose Based on Morphological Features | 457 | ||
| 16.2.1.1 Bacterial Cellulose | 457 | ||
| 16.2.1.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals | 458 | ||
| 16.2.1.3 Microfibrillated Cellulose | 458 | ||
| 16.3 Nanocellulose for Water Purification | 458 | ||
| 16.3.1 Heavy Metal Removal from Water | 459 | ||
| 16.3.2 Oil Absorption from Water | 465 | ||
| 16.3.3 Dye Removal from Water | 472 | ||
| 16.4 Conclusions | 473 | ||
| References | 473 | ||
| Section IV - Spectroscopic Techniques with Nanomaterials | 477 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Detection of Environmental Pollutants by Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy | 479 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 479 | ||
| 17.2 Environmental Monitoring by SERS | 482 | ||
| 17.2.1 Detection of Pesticides | 482 | ||
| 17.2.2 Detection of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons | 488 | ||
| 17.2.3 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions | 494 | ||
| 17.3 Conclusions and Outlook | 499 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 499 | ||
| References | 499 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering with Nanomaterials | 504 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 504 | ||
| 18.2 Theory of SERS | 505 | ||
| 18.2.1 Electromagnetic Enhancement Mechanism | 505 | ||
| 18.2.2 Chemical Enhancement Mechanism | 505 | ||
| 18.3 Selection Rules | 506 | ||
| 18.3.1 Image Field Model | 507 | ||
| 18.3.2 Electromagnetic Field Model | 507 | ||
| 18.4 Metal Nanoparticles | 508 | ||
| 18.5 Importance of SERS in Pollutant Detection | 509 | ||
| 18.6 Sample Preparation | 510 | ||
| 18.7 Orientation Mechanism | 510 | ||
| 18.8 Detection of PCBs in Soil Using SERS | 516 | ||
| References | 518 | ||
| Subject Index | 520 |