Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The second edition of oral radiology serves for the purpose of helping the students to understand the topics as well as to prepare them thoroughly to face examinations.
- New chapters have been added on Periosteal Reaction, Lamina dura and CBCT
- Chapters extensibly revised to include recent advances and new and better quality photographs added for better understanding of the subject
- At the end of each chapter, a short summary of the topic has been introduced for fast revision of the topics
- MCQs, SAQs and LAQs are provided in each chapter
- Appendices section contains useful topics like Pathogenesis of Radiological Appearances in Orofacial Lesions, Radiological Differential Diagnosis of Lesion, Periosteal Bone Reactions and its Diagnostic Significance, Glossary, and Quick Review
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title Page | iii | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| List of Contributors | ix | ||
| Preface to the Second Edition | xv | ||
| Preface to the First Edition | xvii | ||
| Acknowledgements | xix | ||
| Contents | xxi | ||
| Section I - Basic Radiology | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - History of Radiology | 3 | ||
| Discoveries related to invention of X-ray | 3 | ||
| Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen | 3 | ||
| Discovery of X-ray | 4 | ||
| Discovery of the radioactivity | 6 | ||
| Discovery of radium | 6 | ||
| Dental use of X-ray | 6 | ||
| Contributor for growth of dental radiology | 7 | ||
| Dr Edmund Kells ‘An Inventor’ | 7 | ||
| William Herbert Rollins ‘A Forgotten Man of Dentistry’ | 7 | ||
| Weston A Price | 8 | ||
| William D Coolidge | 8 | ||
| Howard Riley Raper | 9 | ||
| Franklin W McCormack | 9 | ||
| X-ray tubes | 9 | ||
| Focus Tube | 9 | ||
| Gas Tubes | 9 | ||
| Regulator Tube | 10 | ||
| Self-regulating Tube | 10 | ||
| Vacuum Tube | 10 | ||
| Coolidge Tube | 10 | ||
| X-ray film | 11 | ||
| Advancement in dental radiology | 12 | ||
| Digital Radiography | 12 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 12 | ||
| Cone Beam Computed Tomography | 12 | ||
| Ultrasound Imaging | 12 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 13 | ||
| Nuclear Medicine | 13 | ||
| MCQs | 15 | ||
| Answers | 15 | ||
| SAQs | 15 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 15 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Physics of Radiation | 16 | ||
| Fundamental concept of matter | 16 | ||
| Types of Matter | 17 | ||
| Fundamental particles | 17 | ||
| Electrons | 17 | ||
| Protons | 18 | ||
| Neutrons | 18 | ||
| Molecular structure | 19 | ||
| Periodic table | 19 | ||
| Atomic mass | 19 | ||
| Atomic models | 20 | ||
| Thomson Model | 20 | ||
| Rutherford Nuclear Atomic Model | 20 | ||
| Bohr Quantum Mechanical Model | 20 | ||
| Sommerfeld Model | 21 | ||
| Quantum number | 21 | ||
| Principal Quantum Number | 21 | ||
| Azimuthal Quantum Number | 22 | ||
| Magnetic Quantum Number | 22 | ||
| Spin Quantum Number | 22 | ||
| Binding energy | 22 | ||
| Ionisation | 22 | ||
| Excitation | 23 | ||
| Linear energy transfer | 23 | ||
| Bragg effect | 23 | ||
| Nature of radiation | 23 | ||
| Particulate Radiation | 23 | ||
| Alpha Rays | 23 | ||
| Beta Rays | 24 | ||
| Cathode Rays | 24 | ||
| Electromagnetic Radiation | 24 | ||
| Electromagnetic Spectrum | 26 | ||
| Wave Theory | 26 | ||
| Quantum Theory | 28 | ||
| Black body radiation | 29 | ||
| Isotopes | 29 | ||
| Isobars | 29 | ||
| Radioactivity | 29 | ||
| Radioactive decay or disintegration | 30 | ||
| Half-life period | 31 | ||
| Radioactive series | 32 | ||
| Radioactive equilibrium | 32 | ||
| MCQs | 34 | ||
| Answers | 34 | ||
| SAQs | 34 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 34 | ||
| Chapter 3 - X-ray Machine and Darkroom | 36 | ||
| Dental X-ray generating equipment | 36 | ||
| Components of X-ray Machine | 36 | ||
| Tube head | 37 | ||
| Components | 37 | ||
| X-ray tube | 39 | ||
| Cathode | 39 | ||
| Anode | 39 | ||
| Tube Cooling | 42 | ||
| Power supply of X-ray machine | 42 | ||
| Transformer | 42 | ||
| Types of Transformer | 43 | ||
| Rectification | 44 | ||
| Electric Current | 45 | ||
| Voltage | 45 | ||
| Resistance | 45 | ||
| Working of power supply | 45 | ||
| Control panel | 46 | ||
| Exposure timers | 46 | ||
| Filtration | 47 | ||
| Types of Filtration | 48 | ||
| Collimation | 49 | ||
| Types of Collimator | 49 | ||
| Grid | 50 | ||
| The darkroom | 51 | ||
| Requirements of Darkroom | 51 | ||
| Safelight | 52 | ||
| Dry Side of Darkroom | 52 | ||
| Wet Side of Darkroom | 53 | ||
| Differences between Diagnostic and Therapy Machine | 53 | ||
| MCQs | 54 | ||
| Answers | 55 | ||
| SAQs | 55 | ||
| LAQ | 56 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 56 | ||
| Chapter 4 - X-rays | 57 | ||
| Electron interaction with target | 58 | ||
| Production of X-rays | 58 | ||
| Process of production of X-rays | 59 | ||
| Bremsstrahlung Radiation | 59 | ||
| Characteristic Radiation | 61 | ||
| Heterogenous radiation | 61 | ||
| HOMOGENOUS radiation | 61 | ||
| Efficiency of X-ray production | 62 | ||
| Inverse square law | 62 | ||
| Heel effect | 63 | ||
| X-ray beam | 64 | ||
| Position and Shape | 64 | ||
| Intensity of X-ray Beam | 64 | ||
| Factors Controlling X-ray Beam | 64 | ||
| X-ray beam characteristics | 65 | ||
| Interaction of X-ray at Atomic Level | 65 | ||
| Interaction of X-ray with Matter | 66 | ||
| MCQs | 69 | ||
| Answers | 70 | ||
| SAQs | 71 | ||
| LAQs | 71 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 71 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Units of Measurement and Dosimetry | 72 | ||
| Units of measurement | 72 | ||
| Air as measurement material | 73 | ||
| Exposure | 73 | ||
| Radiation absorbed dose | 73 | ||
| Equivalent dose | 73 | ||
| Effective dose | 74 | ||
| Collective effective dose or collective dose | 74 | ||
| Dose rate | 74 | ||
| Kerma | 74 | ||
| Units of radioactivity | 74 | ||
| Dosimetry | 75 | ||
| Definitions | 75 | ||
| Frick Dosimeter | 75 | ||
| Film Badges | 75 | ||
| Thermoluminescent Dosimeters | 76 | ||
| Ionisation Chamber | 77 | ||
| Rate Meter | 77 | ||
| Thimble Ionisation Chamber | 78 | ||
| Condenser Ionisation Chamber | 78 | ||
| Geiger–Müller Counters | 78 | ||
| Scintillation Detector | 78 | ||
| Pocket Dosimeter | 79 | ||
| MCQs | 80 | ||
| Answers | 81 | ||
| SAQs | 81 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 81 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Radiation Hazards | 82 | ||
| Radiation biology | 83 | ||
| Types of biological effect | 83 | ||
| Types of radiation effects | 83 | ||
| Somatic Stochastic Effect | 83 | ||
| Somatic Deterministic Effects | 84 | ||
| Genetic Effect | 84 | ||
| Acute or Short-term Effect | 84 | ||
| Chronic or Long-term Effect | 84 | ||
| Radiation chemistry | 85 | ||
| Direct Effect | 85 | ||
| Indirect Effect | 86 | ||
| Factors affecting effect of radiation on the body | 86 | ||
| Radiation injury sequence | 87 | ||
| Radiosensitivity of the cells | 87 | ||
| Biological effects on different structures | 88 | ||
| Nucleic Acids | 88 | ||
| Proteins | 88 | ||
| Chromosomes | 88 | ||
| Cytoplasm | 88 | ||
| Cell Kinetic | 89 | ||
| Radiation effects on oral cavity | 89 | ||
| Oral Mucous Membrane | 89 | ||
| Taste Buds | 89 | ||
| Salivary Gland | 89 | ||
| Teeth | 90 | ||
| Radiation Caries | 90 | ||
| Bone | 90 | ||
| Osteoradionecrosis | 90 | ||
| Effect on whole-body irradiation | 90 | ||
| Acute Radiation Syndrome | 91 | ||
| Effect on unborn fetus | 91 | ||
| Risk from dental radiation | 91 | ||
| Radiation Dose Received to Personnel | 91 | ||
| Occupational Exposure | 92 | ||
| Skin Dose | 92 | ||
| Gonadal Dose | 92 | ||
| Mean Active Bone Marrow Dose | 92 | ||
| Thyroid Dose | 92 | ||
| Eye Dose | 92 | ||
| Parotid Dose | 93 | ||
| Concept of localised radiation and total-body exposure | 93 | ||
| Late somatic effects | 93 | ||
| Carcinogenesis | 93 | ||
| Growth and Development | 93 | ||
| Mental Retardation | 93 | ||
| Sterility | 93 | ||
| MCQs | 95 | ||
| Answers | 96 | ||
| SAQs | 96 | ||
| LAQs | 96 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 96 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Radiation Protection | 97 | ||
| Sources of radiation exposure | 97 | ||
| Natural Radiation | 97 | ||
| Artificial (or Man-made) Radiation | 98 | ||
| Guidelines for radiation safety | 98 | ||
| Maximum Permissible Dose | 98 | ||
| Maximum Accumulated Dose (MAD) | 98 | ||
| ALARA Concept | 98 | ||
| Method of dose and exposure reduction to patient | 99 | ||
| Before Exposure | 99 | ||
| During Exposure | 101 | ||
| After Exposure | 103 | ||
| Protection of personnel | 104 | ||
| Other protection in radiology | 105 | ||
| MCQs | 107 | ||
| Answers | 108 | ||
| SAQs | 108 | ||
| LAQ | 108 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 108 | ||
| Section II - Imaging Principles | 109 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Principle of Projection | 111 | ||
| Principles of shadow casting | 111 | ||
| Image sharpness and image resolution | 112 | ||
| Using as Small Effective Focal Spot as Practically Possible | 112 | ||
| Increasing Distance Between Focal Spot and Object | 112 | ||
| Decreasing Object–Film Distance | 112 | ||
| Image size distortion | 113 | ||
| Image shape distortion | 113 | ||
| Troubleshooting | 113 | ||
| Applications of projection geometry principles | 114 | ||
| Bisecting Angle Technique | 114 | ||
| Applications | 114 | ||
| Paralleling/Long Cone/Right Angle Technique | 114 | ||
| Application | 114 | ||
| MCQs | 115 | ||
| Answers | 115 | ||
| SAQ | 115 | ||
| LAQ | 115 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 115 | ||
| Chapter 9 - X-ray Films, Intensifying Screen and Cassette | 116 | ||
| X-ray films | 116 | ||
| Types | 116 | ||
| According to Sensitivity | 116 | ||
| According to Use | 116 | ||
| According to Speed of Film | 117 | ||
| According to Packaging | 117 | ||
| According to Emulsion | 117 | ||
| Intraoral films | 117 | ||
| Types | 117 | ||
| Intraoral Periapical Films | 117 | ||
| Bitewing Films | 118 | ||
| Occlusal Films | 118 | ||
| Content of Film Packet | 118 | ||
| Base | 119 | ||
| Adhesive | 120 | ||
| Emulsion | 120 | ||
| Speed or Sensitivity of X-ray Film | 120 | ||
| Extraoral films | 121 | ||
| Film Construction | 121 | ||
| Duplicating film | 122 | ||
| Film storage | 122 | ||
| Intensifying screen | 122 | ||
| Mechanism of Emission of Light | 122 | ||
| Action | 123 | ||
| Composition | 124 | ||
| Protective Coating | 124 | ||
| Phosphor Material | 124 | ||
| Reflective Layer | 124 | ||
| Base | 124 | ||
| Screen Speed | 124 | ||
| Lead Intensifying Screen | 125 | ||
| Screen Maintenance | 125 | ||
| Film-holding device | 125 | ||
| Types of Film Holders | 125 | ||
| Blade-type Holder | 126 | ||
| Rinn Snap-A-Ray Film Holder | 126 | ||
| Bite-blocks | 126 | ||
| Haemostat | 126 | ||
| Rinn XCP Instrument | 127 | ||
| Beam Aligning Holders | 127 | ||
| Cassette | 127 | ||
| MCQs | 130 | ||
| Answers | 131 | ||
| SAQs | 131 | ||
| LAQs | 131 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 132 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Image Characteristics | 133 | ||
| Density | 133 | ||
| Factors Affecting Density of Films | 134 | ||
| Factors in Relation with X-ray Machine | 134 | ||
| Factors in Relation with Image Receptor | 134 | ||
| Factors in Relation with Object | 134 | ||
| Factors in Relation with Processing of the Film | 135 | ||
| Characteristic curve | 136 | ||
| Film gamma and average gradient | 136 | ||
| Contrast | 137 | ||
| Factors Affecting Contrast of the Film | 138 | ||
| Factors in Relation with the Patient | 138 | ||
| Factors in Relation with X-ray Machine | 138 | ||
| Factors in Relation with Film | 138 | ||
| Factors in Relation with Processing | 138 | ||
| Film speed and film sensitivity | 138 | ||
| Film latitude | 139 | ||
| Resolution | 139 | ||
| Sharpness | 140 | ||
| Factors Influencing Sharpness | 141 | ||
| Radiographic mottle or noise | 141 | ||
| Reciprocity law failure | 141 | ||
| Film fog | 141 | ||
| MCQs | 143 | ||
| Answers | 144 | ||
| SAQs | 144 | ||
| LAQ | 144 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 144 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Processing of Film and Image Formation | 145 | ||
| Image formation | 145 | ||
| Terminology Used in Radiography | 145 | ||
| Types of Image | 145 | ||
| Latent Image Formation | 146 | ||
| Formation of Visible Image | 147 | ||
| Processing of film | 147 | ||
| Types of Processing | 147 | ||
| Stages of Manual Processing (Time–Temperature Method) | 147 | ||
| Developer | 149 | ||
| Fixer | 150 | ||
| Film Hanger | 151 | ||
| Dryer | 151 | ||
| Automatic Processing | 151 | ||
| Types of Automatic Processor | 151 | ||
| Method of Automatic Processing | 151 | ||
| Maintenance of Automatic Processor | 153 | ||
| Replenishment | 153 | ||
| Self-Developing Film | 153 | ||
| Monobath Method | 154 | ||
| Daylight Processor | 154 | ||
| Reduction of Overdeveloped or Dark Radiograph | 154 | ||
| Intensification of Underdeveloped or Light Radiograph | 155 | ||
| Preparation of Processing Solution | 155 | ||
| Quick Processing | 155 | ||
| Film Identification | 155 | ||
| Silver Recovery | 155 | ||
| Duplication of Radiograph | 155 | ||
| Duplicating Films | 156 | ||
| Types of Duplicating Radiograph | 156 | ||
| Photographic method | 156 | ||
| Maintenance of Darkroom | 156 | ||
| Removal of Processing Stains on Aprons | 157 | ||
| Management of Waste in Dental Radiology | 157 | ||
| MCQs | 158 | ||
| Answers | 159 | ||
| SAQs | 159 | ||
| LAQ | 159 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 159 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Infection Control in Dental Radiology | 160 | ||
| General considerations | 160 | ||
| Infections of main concern | 161 | ||
| Methods of sterilisation | 161 | ||
| Infection control measures | 161 | ||
| Training | 161 | ||
| Vaccination | 161 | ||
| Personal Protection | 161 | ||
| Classification of Surface for Infection Control | 162 | ||
| Working Area | 162 | ||
| X-ray Equipment | 163 | ||
| X-ray Films | 163 | ||
| Processing | 164 | ||
| Film Holders | 164 | ||
| Lead Apron | 164 | ||
| Extraoral Technique | 165 | ||
| Sialography | 165 | ||
| Panoramic Machine and Cephalostat | 165 | ||
| MCQs | 166 | ||
| Answers | 167 | ||
| SAQ | 167 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 167 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Patient Management in Dental Radiology | 168 | ||
| Dental radiographer | 168 | ||
| Knowledge and Skill Requirement | 168 | ||
| Relation with patient | 169 | ||
| Communication Skills | 169 | ||
| Listening Skills | 169 | ||
| Facilitation Skills | 169 | ||
| Behaviour of Dental Radiographer | 169 | ||
| Chairside Manners | 169 | ||
| Patient education | 170 | ||
| Legal issues in dental radiology | 170 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 170 | ||
| Section III - Intraoral Techniques | 171 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Intraoral Radiography: General Considerations | 173 | ||
| Types of intraoral radiography | 173 | ||
| Section IV - Radiographic Interpretation | 241 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Normal Radiographic Anatomy | 243 | ||
| Anatomy of face | 243 | ||
| Maxilla | 243 | ||
| Mandible | 244 | ||
| Landmarks common in maxilla and mandible | 245 | ||
| Teeth | 245 | ||
| Enamel | 245 | ||
| Dentine | 245 | ||
| Cementum | 246 | ||
| Cervical Burn-out | 246 | ||
| Pulp | 246 | ||
| Lamina Dura | 246 | ||
| Alveolar Crest | 247 | ||
| Periodontal Ligament Space | 248 | ||
| Cancellous Bone | 248 | ||
| Cortical Bone | 249 | ||
| Maxillary landmarks | 250 | ||
| Radiopaque Maxilary Landmarks | 250 | ||
| Anterior Nasal Spine | 250 | ||
| Nose | 250 | ||
| Nasal Septum | 250 | ||
| Inferior Concha | 250 | ||
| Floor of Nasal Cavity | 250 | ||
| Zygomatic Process | 251 | ||
| Zygoma | 251 | ||
| Nasolabial Fold | 252 | ||
| Pterygoid Plate | 252 | ||
| Hamular Process | 252 | ||
| Junction of Maxillary Sinus and Nasal Cavity or Inverted Y-Shaped Area | 252 | ||
| Maxillary Tuberosity | 253 | ||
| Radiolucent Maxillary Landmarks | 253 | ||
| Intermaxillary Suture | 253 | ||
| Nasal Fossa or Nasal Cavity | 254 | ||
| Incisive Foramina | 254 | ||
| Superior Foramina of Nasopalatine Canal | 254 | ||
| Lateral Fossa | 255 | ||
| Nasolacrimal Canal | 255 | ||
| Maxillary Sinus | 255 | ||
| Mandibular landmarks | 257 | ||
| Radiopaque Landmarks | 257 | ||
| Genial Tubercle | 257 | ||
| Mental Ridge | 257 | ||
| Mylohyoid Ridge | 258 | ||
| External Oblique Ridge | 258 | ||
| Internal Oblique Ridge | 258 | ||
| Inferior Border of Mandible | 259 | ||
| Coronoid Process | 259 | ||
| Lingula | 259 | ||
| Radiolucent Landmarks | 259 | ||
| Symphysis | 259 | ||
| Mental Fossa | 260 | ||
| Mental Foramina | 260 | ||
| Lingual Foramina | 260 | ||
| Mandibular Canal | 261 | ||
| Nutrient Canal | 261 | ||
| Submandibular Gland Fossa | 262 | ||
| Sublingual Fossa | 262 | ||
| Retromolar Triangle | 262 | ||
| Normal radiographic appearance of jaws in children | 262 | ||
| Structures commonly seen in extraoral radiograph | 263 | ||
| Styloid Process | 263 | ||
| Hyoid Bone | 263 | ||
| Soft-tissue Shadows | 264 | ||
| Pseudocyst of Condyle | 264 | ||
| Appearance of foreign materials on radiograph | 264 | ||
| Endodontic Materials | 264 | ||
| Restorative Materials | 264 | ||
| Orthodontic Materials | 265 | ||
| Oral Surgery Materials | 265 | ||
| Prosthodontic Materials | 265 | ||
| Periodontal Materials | 265 | ||
| Radiographic Materials | 265 | ||
| MCQs | 268 | ||
| Answers | 268 | ||
| SAQs | 268 | ||
| LAQs | 268 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 268 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Principle of Radiographic Interpretation | 269 | ||
| Radiopacities | 270 | ||
| Basic tissue radiographic opacities | 270 | ||
| Radiolucencies | 271 | ||
| Principles and methodical approach to radiological interpretation | 271 | ||
| Identify the Radiograph | 271 | ||
| View Images under Ideal Conditions | 271 | ||
| Film Mounting | 271 | ||
| Interpret from Quality Radiographs Only | 272 | ||
| Obtain Additional Films if Necessary | 272 | ||
| Order Special Imaging Studies if Necessary | 272 | ||
| Be Familiar with Anatomical Landmarks | 273 | ||
| Master the Pathology | 273 | ||
| Interpret the Radiograph Entirely | 273 | ||
| Interpret the Radiograph Independently of the Clinical Information | 273 | ||
| Describe Radiological Findings Precisely | 273 | ||
| Compare the Image with Previous Images | 274 | ||
| Explain Significance of the Findings | 274 | ||
| Develop a Differential Diagnosis | 274 | ||
| State your Diagnostic Impression | 274 | ||
| Make Appropriate Recommendations | 274 | ||
| Seek Advice from Appropriate Others | 274 | ||
| Pitfalls in interpretation | 274 | ||
| Computer-assisted Interpretation in Radiographic Diagnosis | 275 | ||
| Shortcomings in the Interpretation of Images | 275 | ||
| Digital Dental Processing | 275 | ||
| MCQs | 276 | ||
| Answers | 277 | ||
| SAQs | 277 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 277 | ||
| Chapter 22 - Quality Control in Dental Radiography | 278 | ||
| Terminology | 278 | ||
| Quality control measures | 279 | ||
| Staff Training and Updating | 279 | ||
| Image Quality | 279 | ||
| Films Reject Analysis | 279 | ||
| Working Procedures | 279 | ||
| Dental X-ray machine | 279 | ||
| Tube rating | 280 | ||
| Spinning top test for timer accuracy | 280 | ||
| Radiation output | 281 | ||
| Collimation | 281 | ||
| Pinhole camera technique for focal spot assessment | 281 | ||
| Darkroom | 282 | ||
| Image receptor | 282 | ||
| X-ray Film | 282 | ||
| Cassettes and Screen | 282 | ||
| Processing | 283 | ||
| Developer Strength | 283 | ||
| Fixer Strength | 283 | ||
| Processing Equipment | 284 | ||
| Quality administration audit | 284 | ||
| Summary | 284 | ||
| MCQs | 285 | ||
| Answers | 286 | ||
| SAQs | 286 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 286 | ||
| Chapter 23 - Undiagnostic Radiography | 287 | ||
| Errors in understanding the machine | 288 | ||
| Lighter Radiographs (Underexposed/ Underdeveloped Radiographs) | 288 | ||
| Darker Films (Overexposed/Overdeveloped/High Density Dadiograph) | 289 | ||
| Errors in technique | 290 | ||
| Undiagnostic Radiograph Because of Improper Manipulation/Bending of Film (Black Line) | 290 | ||
| Phalangioma | 290 | ||
| Errors in Film Placement (Cone-cut/Partial Image) | 291 | ||
| Blurring | 291 | ||
| Image Shape Distortion | 292 | ||
| Tyre-track Appearance | 292 | ||
| Ornamental Artefacts | 292 | ||
| Foreign Body/Restorative Materials in Oral Cavity | 293 | ||
| Double Images Resulting Because of Double Exposure | 293 | ||
| Size Distortion/Improper Vertical Angulations/Elongation or Shortening of Image | 293 | ||
| Improper Horizontal Angulation | 294 | ||
| Errors in processing | 294 | ||
| Accidental Exposure of the Film to the Daylight | 294 | ||
| Contamination of Film with Developer or Fixer Solution before Processing | 295 | ||
| Film Dropped into Developer or Fixer Solution | 295 | ||
| Film Incompletely Immersed in Developer Solution | 296 | ||
| Dust in Developer Solution | 296 | ||
| Air Bells | 296 | ||
| Grainy Appearance | 296 | ||
| Film Incompletely Immersed in the Fixer Solution | 296 | ||
| Dust in Fixer | 296 | ||
| Use of Expired Film | 297 | ||
| Improper Washing and Storage of the Film | 297 | ||
| Warping of Film | 298 | ||
| Improper Positioning of Hanger | 298 | ||
| Scratches on Film | 298 | ||
| Improper Drying | 299 | ||
| Static Electricity | 299 | ||
| MCQs | 300 | ||
| Answers | 301 | ||
| SAQs | 301 | ||
| LAQ | 301 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 301 | ||
| Section V - Extraoral Techniques | 303 | ||
| Chapter 24 - Lateral Oblique View | 305 | ||
| Types | 305 | ||
| Lateral Oblique Ramus View | 305 | ||
| Lateral Oblique View of Body of Mandible | 306 | ||
| Bimolar View or Gardner View | 306 | ||
| Indications of Oblique Radiography | 307 | ||
| MCQs | 307 | ||
| Answers | 307 | ||
| SAQs | 307 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 307 | ||
| Chapter 25 - Skull Radiography | 308 | ||
| Skull anatomy | 308 | ||
| Landmarks and reference planes used for skull radiography | 308 | ||
| Considerations in skull imaging | 310 | ||
| Technical Considerations | 310 | ||
| Dose Optimisation | 312 | ||
| Radiographic techniques | 312 | ||
| Approaches | 312 | ||
| Conventions in Describing Skull Imaging Projections | 312 | ||
| Criteria for Diagnostic Images | 313 | ||
| Sagittal projections | 313 | ||
| Lateral Cephalometric (Lateral Skull) | 313 | ||
| Area Visualised | 313 | ||
| Indications | 313 | ||
| Technique | 313 | ||
| Ideal Image | 314 | ||
| Coronal projections | 314 | ||
| Posteroanterior (PA) Projections | 314 | ||
| True Posteroanterior (Occipitofrontal) Projection | 314 | ||
| Area Visualised | 314 | ||
| Indications | 314 | ||
| Technique | 315 | ||
| Ideal image | 315 | ||
| Waters’ Projection (Inclined PA, Posteroanterior Oblique, Occipitomental, Parietoacanthial) | 315 | ||
| Area Visualised | 315 | ||
| Indications | 316 | ||
| Technique | 316 | ||
| Ideal image | 316 | ||
| Caldwell Projection (Inclined PA) | 316 | ||
| Area Visualised | 316 | ||
| Section VI - Specialised Techniques | 355 | ||
| Chapter 27 - Orthopantomography | 357 | ||
| Introduction | 357 | ||
| Indications | 357 | ||
| Advantages | 357 | ||
| Limitations | 358 | ||
| Image formation | 358 | ||
| Zone of sharpness | 359 | ||
| Patient positioning guidelines | 360 | ||
| Interpretation of a panoramic image | 361 | ||
| Errors and artefacts | 362 | ||
| Operator Errors | 362 | ||
| Too Far Forward or Too Far Back | 362 | ||
| Patient’s Chin Tilted Too High or Too Low | 362 | ||
| Tongue Not Raised Against the Palate | 362 | ||
| Patient’s Head Rotated or Wrong Midsagittal Plane Alignment | 362 | ||
| Patient Slumping Error | 362 | ||
| Patient Movement During Exposure | 363 | ||
| Lead Apron Too High | 363 | ||
| Earrings and Neck Chains Not Removed | 363 | ||
| Darkroom and Processing Errors | 363 | ||
| Too Dark or Too Light Images | 363 | ||
| Conclustion | 365 | ||
| MCQs | 366 | ||
| Answers | 367 | ||
| LAQ | 367 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 367 | ||
| Chapter 28 - Computed Tomography | 368 | ||
| Introduction | 368 | ||
| History | 368 | ||
| Scanner equipment | 369 | ||
| X-ray Source | 369 | ||
| Filters | 369 | ||
| Collimators | 369 | ||
| Detector Array | 370 | ||
| Data Acquisition System | 370 | ||
| Image Reconstruction | 370 | ||
| Image Quality | 370 | ||
| Gantry | 370 | ||
| Computer Component | 370 | ||
| Principle of CT scanning | 371 | ||
| Preparation of patient | 371 | ||
| Positioning of patient | 371 | ||
| Types of CT Imaging | 372 | ||
| Artefacts in computed tomography | 372 | ||
| Generations of CT | 373 | ||
| First-generation CT Scanner | 373 | ||
| Second-generation CT | 373 | ||
| Third-generation CT | 373 | ||
| Fourth-generation CT | 373 | ||
| Fifth-generation CT | 374 | ||
| CT interpretations | 374 | ||
| Significance of CT in maxillofacial region | 375 | ||
| Odontogenic Infections | 375 | ||
| Sialadenitis | 376 | ||
| Odontogenic Cysts | 377 | ||
| Odontogenic Tumours | 377 | ||
| Malignancies | 378 | ||
| Fibro-osseous Lesions | 379 | ||
| Maxillary Lesions | 380 | ||
| CT Imaging of Temporomandibular Joint | 380 | ||
| Conclusion | 381 | ||
| MCQs | 382 | ||
| Answers | 383 | ||
| SAQs | 383 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 383 | ||
| Chapter 29 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 385 | ||
| Definition | 385 | ||
| Basic physics of magnetic resonance imaging | 386 | ||
| Precession | 387 | ||
| Longitudinal Magnetisation | 388 | ||
| Application of Radio-frequency Pulse in MRI | 388 | ||
| Relaxation Phenomena | 388 | ||
| Production of images in magnetic resonance imaging | 391 | ||
| Magnetic resonance imaging system instrumentation | 392 | ||
| Introduction to MRI Systems | 392 | ||
| Procedures for Acquisition of MR Images | 393 | ||
| Normal anatomy in oral and maxillofacial regions on MRI | 396 | ||
| Normal MR Appearances in Oral and Maxillofacial Regions | 396 | ||
| Signal Intensity for Each Tissue | 397 | ||
| Commonly Encountered MRI-related Artefacts | 401 | ||
| Teeth (Including Erupting Teeth) | 402 | ||
| Maxilla (Including Maxillary Sinus and Nasal Cavities) | 405 | ||
| Mandible (Including Mandibular Canals) | 407 | ||
| Oral Cavities (Including Tongue) | 409 | ||
| Salivary Glands (Including Parotid, Submandibular and Sublingual Glands) | 410 | ||
| Parotid Gland | 410 | ||
| Submandibular Gland | 411 | ||
| Sublingual Glands | 413 | ||
| Temporomandibular Joints | 413 | ||
| Special MR techniques | 415 | ||
| MR Images Using Contrast Medium | 415 | ||
| Identification of Vessels in Oral and Maxillofacial Regions Using MR Angiography | 416 | ||
| Identification of Salivary Gland Ducts Using MR Sialography and Virtual Endoscopy | 417 | ||
| Identification of Trigeminal Nerve in Root Entry Zone Using MR Cisternography | 418 | ||
| Functional MRI | 418 | ||
| MCQs | 422 | ||
| Answers | 423 | ||
| SAQs | 423 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 423 | ||
| Chapter 30 - Digital Radiography | 425 | ||
| Historical overview | 425 | ||
| Technical aspects | 425 | ||
| What is the Meaning of ‘Digital’? | 425 | ||
| Components of a Digital Radiographic System | 426 | ||
| Solid-state Detectors | 426 | ||
| Storage Phosphors | 427 | ||
| Large-area Flat-panel Detectors | 428 | ||
| Digital Image | 428 | ||
| Quality of a Digital Image | 428 | ||
| Image Processing | 429 | ||
| To date solutions for dental digital radiography | 431 | ||
| Intraoral Radiography | 431 | ||
| Extraoral Radiography | 431 | ||
| Clinical aspects | 432 | ||
| Practical Application | 432 | ||
| How to View Digital Radiographs | 432 | ||
| What About Patient Dose? | 433 | ||
| Diagnostic Quality of Digital Dental Radiographs | 433 | ||
| How to Store Digital Radiographs | 433 | ||
| Specific digital radiographic techniques | 434 | ||
| Digital Subtraction Radiography | 434 | ||
| 3D Techniques Based on Few 2D Images | 435 | ||
| Conclusion | 435 | ||
| MCQs | 437 | ||
| Answers | 437 | ||
| SAQs | 437 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 437 | ||
| Chapter 31 - Cone-beam Computed Tomography | 439 | ||
| Introduction | 439 | ||
| History/background | 439 | ||
| Principle of CBCT imaging | 440 | ||
| Image formation | 441 | ||
| Radiation dose | 442 | ||
| Artefacts in CBCT | 442 | ||
| Application of CBCT | 444 | ||
| Implant Imaging | 444 | ||
| Orthodontic and Orthognathic Surgeries | 445 | ||
| Endodontics | 446 | ||
| Periodontics | 446 | ||
| MCQs | 447 | ||
| Answers | 447 | ||
| SAQs | 447 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 447 | ||
| Chapter 32 - Ultrasonography | 448 | ||
| Principle of ultrasonography | 448 | ||
| Image interpretation | 449 | ||
| Applications of ultrasonography in oral and maxillofacial imaging | 450 | ||
| Detection of Benign and Malignant Masses | 450 | ||
| Detection of Inflammatory Soft Tissue Conditions | 450 | ||
| Detection of Orofacial Fracture | 450 | ||
| Detection of Thickness of Muscles | 450 | ||
| Ultrasonography in salivary gland pathologies | 451 | ||
| Inflammatory Conditions of Salivary Glands | 451 | ||
| Sialolithiasis | 453 | ||
| Salivary Gland Tumours | 453 | ||
| Ultrasonography of neck | 454 | ||
| Ultrasonography for vascular structures in orofacial region | 455 | ||
| Ultrasonography as guiding or interventional tool | 455 | ||
| Conclusion | 456 | ||
| MCQs | 456 | ||
| Answers | 457 | ||
| SAQs | 457 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 457 | ||
| Chapter 33 - Nuclear Medicine | 458 | ||
| History in relation with nuclear medicine | 458 | ||
| Basic physics of radionuclide imaging | 460 | ||
| Radionuclide | 460 | ||
| Production of Radionuclide | 460 | ||
| Radioactive transformation (decay) | 460 | ||
| Nuclides with a Neutron Excess b-decay | 460 | ||
| Isomeric Transition | 461 | ||
| Nuclides with a Neutron Deficit | 461 | ||
| K-electron Capture | 461 | ||
| Gamma rays | 461 | ||
| Internal Conversion | 461 | ||
| Beta rays | 461 | ||
| Positron Emitters | 461 | ||
| Radioactive decay | 461 | ||
| Activity | 462 | ||
| Physical Half-life | 462 | ||
| Exponential Decay | 462 | ||
| Effective Half-life | 462 | ||
| Radiopharmaceuticals | 462 | ||
| Radioisotopes Used in Conventional Nuclear Medicine | 463 | ||
| Gamma imaging | 463 | ||
| Components and Principle | 463 | ||
| Technique | 464 | ||
| Radioimmunoscintigraphy | 464 | ||
| Radiotracers to monitor gene therapy | 465 | ||
| Single-photon emission computed tomography | 465 | ||
| Conclusion | 465 | ||
| MCQs | 467 | ||
| Answers | 468 | ||
| SAQs | 468 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 468 | ||
| Chapter 34 - Thermography | 470 | ||
| importance of temperature in biological systems | 470 | ||
| Historical background | 471 | ||
| Principles of thermography | 471 | ||
| Clinical temperature measurements | 471 | ||
| Obtaining thermal images (thermography) | 472 | ||
| Types of thermography | 472 | ||
| Liquid Crystal (Contact) Thermography | 472 | ||
| Infrared Telethermography | 472 | ||
| History | 472 | ||
| Infrared Radiation Detectors for Clinical Use | 473 | ||
| Advantages of thermography | 473 | ||
| Uses of thermography | 473 | ||
| Dental applications | 473 | ||
| Facial telethermography | 474 | ||
| Conclusion | 474 | ||
| MCQs | 475 | ||
| Answers | 475 | ||
| SAQ | 475 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 475 | ||
| Chapter 35 - Positron Emission Tomography and Fusion Imaging | 477 | ||
| Positron emission tomography | 477 | ||
| Principle of PET | 477 | ||
| Physics and PET Camera | 478 | ||
| Handling of Acquired Data | 478 | ||
| Imaging Using PET Tracers | 479 | ||
| Scanning a Patient with FDG | 479 | ||
| Quantification of Tracer Concentration | 479 | ||
| Advantages and Limitations of PET | 480 | ||
| Fusion imaging | 480 | ||
| Image modalities | 480 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 480 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 481 | ||
| Role of PET/CT coregistration | 481 | ||
| An insight into fusion imaging | 482 | ||
| Principle | 482 | ||
| Importance of Fusion Imaging | 482 | ||
| Clinical applications of fusion imaging | 482 | ||
| Evaluation of Primary Tumour | 482 | ||
| Lymph Node Assessment | 483 | ||
| Metastasis | 486 | ||
| Treatment Response | 487 | ||
| MCQs | 489 | ||
| Answers | 489 | ||
| SAQs | 489 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 489 | ||
| Chapter 36 - Image-guided Therapy | 492 | ||
| Planning and simulation | 492 | ||
| Virtual Reality | 492 | ||
| Medical Rapid Prototyping | 493 | ||
| Image-guided surgery | 494 | ||
| Navigation Systems | 494 | ||
| Image-to-physical Transformation (Registration) | 495 | ||
| Fiducial-based Registration | 495 | ||
| Laser Surface Registration | 496 | ||
| Intraoperative Navigation | 496 | ||
| Augmented Reality | 497 | ||
| Surgical robotics | 497 | ||
| Intraoperative imaging | 498 | ||
| Postoperative imaging and evaluation | 498 | ||
| MCQs | 500 | ||
| Answers | 500 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 501 | ||
| Chapter 37 - Outdated Specialised Techniques | 505 | ||
| Introduction | 505 | ||
| Conventional tomography | 505 | ||
| Fundamental Principle | 505 | ||
| Linear Tomography | 506 | ||
| Pluridirectional Tomography | 506 | ||
| Focal Plane | 506 | ||
| Equipment | 506 | ||
| Patient Positioning | 506 | ||
| Stereoscopy | 506 | ||
| Xeroradiography | 506 | ||
| Medical Xeroradiography | 507 | ||
| Dental Xeroradiography | 507 | ||
| Technique | 507 | ||
| MCQs | 508 | ||
| Answers | 508 | ||
| SAQ | 508 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 508 | ||
| Section VII - Radiology of Specific Systems | 509 | ||
| Chapter 38 - Contrast Agents | 511 | ||
| Introduction | 511 | ||
| Historical background | 512 | ||
| Principle of contrast media | 512 | ||
| Definition of contrast agent | 512 | ||
| Requirement | 512 | ||
| Classification | 513 | ||
| Useful facts to remember | 513 | ||
| Chemistry | 513 | ||
| Barium Sulphate | 513 | ||
| Iodine | 513 | ||
| High-osmolality contrast media | 514 | ||
| Ionic Monomers | 514 | ||
| Low-osmolality contrast media | 514 | ||
| Ionic Dimer | 514 | ||
| Non-ionic Monomer | 514 | ||
| Non-ionic Dimers | 515 | ||
| General properties of contrast media | 515 | ||
| Viscosity | 515 | ||
| Osmolality | 515 | ||
| Chemotoxicity | 515 | ||
| Ideal properties of contrast agents | 515 | ||
| Contrast agents in sialography | 515 | ||
| Classification of Contrast Agents Used in Sialography | 516 | ||
| Lipid- or Fat-soluble Contrast Media | 516 | ||
| Iodised oils | 516 | ||
| Water-insoluble organic iodine compounds | 516 | ||
| Contrast media in arthrography | 516 | ||
| Contrast media in angiography | 516 | ||
| Contrast media in lymphangiography | 516 | ||
| Contrast media in computed tomography | 517 | ||
| Contrast agents for ultrasound imaging | 517 | ||
| Contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging | 517 | ||
| Adverse reaction | 518 | ||
| Idiosyncratic Reactions | 518 | ||
| Non-idiosyncratic Reactions | 518 | ||
| How to Minimise Contrast Agent Reactions | 519 | ||
| Prevention of Adverse Reaction | 519 | ||
| Treatment Modalities of Adverse Reaction | 519 | ||
| Risk assessment form for contrast injection | 521 | ||
| MCQs | 522 | ||
| Answers | 523 | ||
| SAQs | 523 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 523 | ||
| Chapter 39 - Imaging of Temporomandibular Joint | 524 | ||
| Plain radiographic images | 526 | ||
| Transpharyngeal View | 526 | ||
| Technique | 526 | ||
| Transorbital View | 527 | ||
| Technique | 527 | ||
| Lateral Transcranial TMJ Image | 528 | ||
| Technique | 528 | ||
| Advantages | 529 | ||
| Disadvantages | 529 | ||
| Panoramic Image | 529 | ||
| Tomographic Images | 530 | ||
| Conventional TMJ Tomogram | 530 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 531 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 532 | ||
| Role of radiology in TMJ disease | 536 | ||
| Fracture | 536 | ||
| Other Consequences of Trauma | 536 | ||
| Ankylosing Spondylitis | 536 | ||
| Open Bite | 537 | ||
| Degenerative Joint Disease Associated with TMJ ID: Comparison Between MRI and CT | 538 | ||
| Conclusion | 539 | ||
| MCQs | 540 | ||
| SAQs | 540 | ||
| LAQ | 540 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 540 | ||
| Chapter 40 - Arthrography and Arthroscopy of TMJ | 542 | ||
| Arthrography of TMJ | 542 | ||
| Complications | 543 | ||
| Technique | 543 | ||
| Double-contrast arthrotomography of TMJ | 544 | ||
| Fluoroscopy of the TMJ | 544 | ||
| Arthroscopy of TMJ | 544 | ||
| Procedure | 544 | ||
| Precautions while undergoing arthrography and arthroscopy | 546 | ||
| MCQ | 547 | ||
| Answers | 547 | ||
| SAQ | 547 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 547 | ||
| Chapter 41 - Salivary Gland Imaging | 549 | ||
| Anatomy and outline of imaging | 549 | ||
| Types of Salivary Gland Imaging | 550 | ||
| Conventional radiography | 550 | ||
| Sialography | 550 | ||
| Technique | 550 | ||
| Normal Sialography | 551 | ||
| Computed tomography | 552 | ||
| CT View of Normal Salivary Gland | 552 | ||
| Section VIII - Radiographic Diagnosis of Lesions | 563 | ||
| Chapter 42 - Teeth Anomalies | 565 | ||
| Alterations in tooth morphology | 565 | ||
| Macrodontia and Microdontia | 565 | ||
| Clinical Features | 565 | ||
| Radiographic Features | 565 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 565 | ||
| Alterations in tooth structure | 566 | ||
| Amelogenesis Imperfecta | 566 | ||
| Clinical Features | 566 | ||
| Radiographic Features | 566 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 566 | ||
| Dentinogenesis Imperfecta | 567 | ||
| Clinical Features | 567 | ||
| Section IX - Appendices | 819 | ||
| Appendix A - Pathogenesis of Radiological Appearances in Orofacial Lesions | 821 | ||
| Suggested Reading | 822 | ||
| Appendix B - Radiological Differential Diagnosis of Lesion | 823 | ||
| Periapical radiolucencies | 823 | ||
| False Periapical Radiolucencies: (Anatomic Periapical Radiolucencies) | 823 | ||
| Periapical Granuloma | 823 | ||
| Periapical Cyst | 824 | ||
| Periapical Scar | 824 | ||
| Periapical Abscess – (Chronic and Acute Dentoalveolar Abscess) | 824 | ||
| Surgical Defect | 824 | ||
| Osteomyelitis | 825 | ||
| Pulpoperiapical Disease and Hyperplasia of Maxillary Sinus Lining | 825 | ||
| Periapical Cemental Dysplasia | 825 | ||
| Dentigerous Cyst | 825 | ||
| Traumatic Bone Cyst | 826 | ||
| Non-radicular Cyst | 826 | ||
| Malignant Tumours | 826 | ||
| Unilocular radiolucency | 826 | ||
| Anatomic Variations | 826 | ||
| Odontogenic Cysts | 826 | ||
| Fissural Cysts | 826 | ||
| Odontogenic Tumours | 827 | ||
| Giant Cell and Non-odontogenic Tumours | 827 | ||
| Multilocular radiolucencies | 828 | ||
| Anatomic Variations | 828 | ||
| Multilocular Cysts | 828 | ||
| Keratocystic Odontogenic Tumour (KOT) | 828 | ||
| Ameloblastoma | 828 | ||
| Central Giant Cell Granuloma | 828 | ||
| Giant Cell Lesions | 828 | ||
| Cherubism | 829 | ||
| Metastatic Tumours to the Jaws | 829 | ||
| Inter-radicular radiolucency | 829 | ||
| Anatomic Variation | 829 | ||
| Furcation Involvement | 829 | ||
| Traumatic Bone Cyst | 829 | ||
| Bony Periodontal Pocket | 829 | ||
| Incisive Canal Cyst | 829 | ||
| Malignancy | 829 | ||
| Lateral Periodontal Cyst | 829 | ||
| Multiple radiolucencies | 829 | ||
| Multiple Myeloma | 829 | ||
| Anatomical Variation | 830 | ||
| Cherubism | 830 | ||
| Basal Cell Naevus Syndrome | 830 | ||
| Neurofibromatosis | 830 | ||
| Non-lipid Reticuloendotheliosis | 830 | ||
| Multiple Cyst or Granuloma | 831 | ||
| Hurler Syndrome | 831 | ||
| Generalized rarefactions | 831 | ||
| Introduction | 831 | ||
| Causes | 831 | ||
| Too little bone formation | 831 | ||
| Too much bone resorption | 831 | ||
| Normal Variations in the Radiodensity of Bone | 831 | ||
| Hyperparathyroidism | 832 | ||
| Osteoporosis | 832 | ||
| Cushing Syndrome | 832 | ||
| Drug-induced Osteoporosis | 833 | ||
| Thyrotoxic Osteoporosis | 833 | ||
| Osteomalacia | 833 | ||
| Hereditary Haemolytic Anaemia | 833 | ||
| Thalassemia | 833 | ||
| Sickle Cell Anaemia | 834 | ||
| Lipid Reticuloendotheliosis | 834 | ||
| Paget Disease | 834 | ||
| Multiple Myeloma | 834 | ||
| Conclusion | 834 | ||
| Mixed radiolucent–radiopaque lesion | 835 | ||
| Cemento-ossifying Fibroma | 835 | ||
| CEOT | 835 | ||
| Chronic Osteomulaitis | 835 | ||
| Osteoradionecrosis | 835 | ||
| Osteogenic Sarcoma | 835 | ||
| Focal Cementoossous Dysplasia | 835 | ||
| Fibrous Dysplasia | 835 | ||
| Chondroma and Chondrosarcoma | 836 | ||
| Paget Disease | 836 | ||
| Ossifying Subperiosteal Haematoma Intermediate Stage | 836 | ||
| Calcifying Odontogenic Cyst | 836 | ||
| Calcifying Crown of Developing Teeth | 836 | ||
| Periapical Cemento-Osseous Dysplasia (PCOD) Intermediate Stage | 836 | ||
| Tooth Root with Rarefying Osteitis Intermediate Stage | 836 | ||
| Rarefying and Condensing Osteitis | 836 | ||
| Odontoma – Intermediate Stage | 836 | ||
| Healing Surgical Site | 836 | ||
| Periapical radiopacities | 837 | ||
| Condensing or Sclerosing Osteitis | 837 | ||
| Periapical Idiopathic Osteosclerosis | 837 | ||
| Mature Periapical or Focal Cementoosseous Dysplasia | 837 | ||
| Index | 881 |