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For courses in Human Physiology
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Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title Page | 1 | ||
| Copyright Page | 2 | ||
| About the Author | 15 | ||
| Preface | 16 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 19 | ||
| Brief Contents | 21 | ||
| Contents | 22 | ||
| List of Boxes | 29 | ||
| 1 Introduction to Physiology | 31 | ||
| 1.1 Organization of the Body | 32 | ||
| Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems | 33 | ||
| The Overall Body Plan: A Simplified View | 36 | ||
| 1.2 Homeostasis: A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology | 39 | ||
| Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis | 40 | ||
| 1.3 The Diabetes Epidemic | 43 | ||
| Prevalence of Diabetes | 43 | ||
| Obesity and Diabetes | 44 | ||
| Classification of Diabetes | 44 | ||
| Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus | 45 | ||
| Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus | 45 | ||
| Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus | 45 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 46 | ||
| Exercises | 47 | ||
| 2 The Cell Structure and Function | 48 | ||
| 2.1 Biomolecules | 49 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 49 | ||
| Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides | 49 | ||
| Lipids | 50 | ||
| Amino Acids and Proteins | 54 | ||
| Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids | 56 | ||
| 2.2 Cell Structure | 59 | ||
| Structure of the Plasma Membrane | 60 | ||
| Structure of the Nucleus | 62 | ||
| Contents of the Cytosol | 62 | ||
| Structure of Membranous Organelles | 63 | ||
| Structure of Nonmembranous Organelles | 65 | ||
| 2.3 Cell-to-Cell Adhesions | 69 | ||
| Tight Junctions | 70 | ||
| Desmosomes | 70 | ||
| Gap Junctions | 70 | ||
| 2.4 General Cell Functions | 70 | ||
| Metabolism | 71 | ||
| Cellular Transport | 71 | ||
| Intercellular Communication | 71 | ||
| 2.5 Protein Synthesis | 72 | ||
| The Role of the Genetic Code | 72 | ||
| Transcription | 72 | ||
| Destination of Proteins | 76 | ||
| Post-translational Processing and Packaging of Proteins | 77 | ||
| Regulation of Protein Synthesis | 77 | ||
| Protein Degradation | 79 | ||
| 2.6 Cell Division | 80 | ||
| Replication of DNA | 80 | ||
| The Cell Cycle | 81 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 83 | ||
| Exercises | 84 | ||
| 3 Cell Metabolism | 86 | ||
| 3.1 Types of Metabolic Reactions | 87 | ||
| Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions | 88 | ||
| Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Reactions | 88 | ||
| Oxidation-Reduction Reactions | 88 | ||
| 3.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy | 89 | ||
| Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics | 89 | ||
| Energy Changes in Reactions | 89 | ||
| Activation Energy | 92 | ||
| 3.3 Reaction Rates | 93 | ||
| Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reactions | 94 | ||
| The Role of Enzymes in Chemical Reactions | 95 | ||
| 3.4 ATP: The Medium of Energy Exchange | 102 | ||
| 3.5 Glucose Oxidation: The Central Reaction of Energy Metabolism | 103 | ||
| Coupling Glucose Oxidation to ATP Synthesis | 103 | ||
| 3.6 Stages of Glucose Oxidation: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation | 104 | ||
| Glycolysis | 104 | ||
| The Krebs Cycle | 105 | ||
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | 107 | ||
| The Electron Transport Chain | 108 | ||
| Summary of Glucose Oxidation | 111 | ||
| Glucose Catabolism in the Absence of Oxygen | 113 | ||
| 3.7 Energy Storage and Use: Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins | 114 | ||
| Glycogen Metabolism | 115 | ||
| Gluconeogenesis: Formation of New Glucose | 116 | ||
| Fat Metabolism | 117 | ||
| Protein Metabolism | 118 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 120 | ||
| Exercises | 121 | ||
| 4 \rCell Membrane Transport | 123 | ||
| 4.1 Factors Affecting the Direction of Transport | 124 | ||
| Passive Transport Versus Active Transport | 124 | ||
| Driving Forces Acting on Molecules | 125 | ||
| 4.2 Rate of Transport | 130 | ||
| 4.3 Passive Transport | 131 | ||
| Simple Diffusion: Passive Transport Through the Lipid Bilayer | 131 | ||
| Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Utilizing Membrane Proteins | 134 | ||
| Diffusion Through Channels | 135 | ||
| 4.4 Active Transport | 136 | ||
| Primary Active Transport | 137 | ||
| Secondary Active Transport | 138 | ||
| Factors Affecting Rates of Active Transport | 139 | ||
| Coexistence of Active and Passive Transport Mechanisms in Cells | 139 | ||
| 4.5 Osmosis: Passive Transport of Water Across Membranes | 140 | ||
| Osmolarity | 141 | ||
| Osmotic Pressure | 142 | ||
| Tonicity | 142 | ||
| 4.6 Transport of Material Within Membrane-Bound Compartments | 144 | ||
| Transport of Molecules into Cells by Endocytosis | 144 | ||
| Transport of Molecules Out of Cells by Exocytosis | 146 | ||
| 4.7 Epithelial Transport: Movement of Molecules Across Two Membranes | 147 | ||
| Epithelial Solute Transport | 147 | ||
| Epithelial Structure | 147 | ||
| Epithelial Water Transport | 148 | ||
| Transcytosis | 149 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 151 | ||
| Exercises | 152 | ||
| 5 Chemical Messengers | 154 | ||
| 5.1 Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication | 155 | ||
| Direct Communication Through Gap Junctions | 155 | ||
| Indirect Communication Through Chemical Messengers | 156 | ||
| 5.2 Chemical Messengers | 156 | ||
| Functional Classification of Chemical Messengers | 156 | ||
| Chemical Classification of Messengers | 158 | ||
| Synthesis and Release of Chemical Messengers | 159 | ||
| Transport of Messengers | 162 | ||
| 5.3 Signal Transduction Mechanisms | 164 | ||
| Properties of Receptors | 164 | ||
| Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Intracellular Receptors | 166 | ||
| Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Membrane-Bound Receptors | 167 | ||
| 5.4 Long-Distance Communication via the Nervous and Endocrine Systems | 174 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 175 | ||
| Exercises | 176 | ||
| 6 The Endocrine System:Endocrine Glandsand Hormone Actions | 178 | ||
| 6.1 Primary Endocrine Organs | 179 | ||
| Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland | 179 | ||
| Pineal Gland | 184 | ||
| Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands | 184 | ||
| Thymus | 184 | ||
| Adrenal Glands | 184 | ||
| Pancreas | 185 | ||
| Gonads | 185 | ||
| 6.2 Secondary Endocrine Organs | 186 | ||
| 6.3 Hormone Actions at the Target Cell | 188 | ||
| Control of Hormone Levels in Blood | 188 | ||
| 6.4 Abnormal Secretion of Hormones | 191 | ||
| 6.5 Hormone Interactions | 192 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 194 | ||
| Exercises | 194 | ||
| 7 Nerve Cells and Electrical Signaling | 196 | ||
| 7.1 Overview of the Nervous System | 197 | ||
| 7.2 Cells of the Nervous System | 198 | ||
| Neurons | 198 | ||
| Glial Cells | 202 | ||
| 7.3 Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential | 204 | ||
| Determining the Equilibrium Potentials for Potassium and Sodium Ions | 204 | ||
| Resting Membrane Potential of Neurons | 206 | ||
| Neurons at Rest | 208 | ||
| 7.4 Electrical Signaling Through Changes in Membrane Potential | 209 | ||
| Describing Changes in Membrane Potential | 209 | ||
| Graded Potentials | 210 | ||
| Action Potentials | 212 | ||
| Propagation of Action Potentials | 219 | ||
| 7.5 Maintaining Neural Stability | 222 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 223 | ||
| Exercises | 224 | ||
| 8 Synaptic Transmission and Neural Integration | 226 | ||
| 8.1 Electrical Synapses | 227 | ||
| 8.2 Chemical Synapses | 227 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of Chemical Synapses | 227 | ||
| Signal Transduction Mechanisms at Chemical Synapses | 229 | ||
| Excitatory Synapses | 230 | ||
| Inhibitory Synapses | 231 | ||
| 8.3 Neural Integration | 233 | ||
| Summation | 234 | ||
| Frequency Coding | 235 | ||
| 8.4 Presynaptic Modulation | 235 | ||
| Presynaptic Facilitation | 235 | ||
| Presynaptic Inhibition | 236 | ||
| 8.5 Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis, and Degradation | 237 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 237 | ||
| Biogenic Amines | 238 | ||
| Purines | 239 | ||
| Amino Acid Neurotransmitters | 239 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 240 | ||
| Unique Neurotransmitters | 241 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 242 | ||
| Exercises | 243 | ||
| 9 The Nervous System:Central Nervous System | 245 | ||
| 9.1 General Anatomy of the Central Nervous System | 246 | ||
| Glial Cells | 246 | ||
| Physical Support of the Central Nervous System | 248 | ||
| Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System | 248 | ||
| The Blood-Brain Barrier | 250 | ||
| Gray Matter and White Matter | 253 | ||
| 9.2 The Spinal Cord | 254 | ||
| Spinal Nerves | 254 | ||
| Spinal Cord Gray and White Matter | 254 | ||
| 9.3 The Brain | 259 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex | 260 | ||
| Subcortical Nuclei | 263 | ||
| Diencephalon | 263 | ||
| Limbic System | 264 | ||
| 9.4 Integrated CNS Function: Involuntary Movement Through Reflexes | 266 | ||
| Stretch Reflex | 267 | ||
| Withdrawal and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes | 267 | ||
| 9.5 Integrated CNS Function: Voluntary Motor Control | 268 | ||
| Neural Components for Smooth Voluntary Movements | 269 | ||
| Lateral Pathways Control Voluntary Movement | 269 | ||
| Ventromedial Pathways Control Voluntary and Involuntary Movements | 270 | ||
| The Control of Posture by the Brainstem | 271 | ||
| The Role of the Cerebellum in Motor Coordination | 271 | ||
| The Basal Nuclei in Motor Control | 271 | ||
| 9.6 Integrated CNS Function: Language | 272 | ||
| 9.7 Integrated CNS Function: Sleep | 272 | ||
| Functions of Sleep | 272 | ||
| Sleep-Wake Cycles | 273 | ||
| Electrical Activity During Wakefulness and Sleep | 274 | ||
| 9.8 Integrated CNS Function: Emotions and Motivation | 275 | ||
| 9.9 Integrated CNS Function: Learning and Memory | 277 | ||
| Learning | 277 | ||
| Memory | 277 | ||
| Plasticity in the Nervous System | 278 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 280 | ||
| Exercises | 281 | ||
| 10 The Nervous System: Sensory Systems | 283 | ||
| 10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology | 284 | ||
| Receptor Physiology | 284 | ||
| Sensory Pathways | 286 | ||
| Sensory Coding | 288 | ||
| 10.2 The Somatosensory System | 292 | ||
| Somatosensory Receptors | 292 | ||
| The Somatosensory Cortex | 295 | ||
| Somatosensory Pathways | 295 | ||
| Pain Perception | 296 | ||
| 10.3 Vision | 299 | ||
| Anatomy of the Eye | 299 | ||
| The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves | 301 | ||
| Accommodation | 302 | ||
| Clinical Defects in Vision | 304 | ||
| Regulating the Amount of Light Entering the Eye | 304 | ||
| The Retina | 306 | ||
| Phototransduction | 307 | ||
| Rods versus Cones | 309 | ||
| Color Vision | 310 | ||
| Light Input to Circadian Rhythms | 311 | ||
| Bleaching of Photoreceptors in Light | 311 | ||
| Neural Processing in the Retina | 311 | ||
| Neural Pathways for Vision | 313 | ||
| Parallel Processing in the Visual System | 314 | ||
| Depth Perception | 314 | ||
| 10.4 The Ear and Hearing | 315 | ||
| Anatomy of the Ear | 315 | ||
| The Nature of Sound Waves | 315 | ||
| Sound Amplification in the Middle Ear | 316 | ||
| Signal Transduction for Sound | 316 | ||
| Neural Pathways for Sound | 321 | ||
| 10.5 The Ear and Equilibrium | 322 | ||
| Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus | 322 | ||
| The Semicircular Canals and the Transduction of Rotation | 322 | ||
| The Utricle and Saccule and the Transduction of Linear Acceleration | 323 | ||
| Neural Pathways for Equilibrium | 325 | ||
| 10.6 Taste | 325 | ||
| Anatomy of Taste Buds | 325 | ||
| Signal Transduction in Taste | 326 | ||
| Neural Pathway for Taste | 327 | ||
| 10.7 Olfaction | 327 | ||
| Anatomy of the Olfactory System | 327 | ||
| Olfactory Signal Transduction | 328 | ||
| Neural Pathway for Olfaction | 329 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 329 | ||
| Exercises | 331 | ||
| 11 The Nervous System:Autonomic and MotorSystems | 333 | ||
| 11.1 The Autonomic Nervous System | 334 | ||
| Dual Innervation in the Autonomic Nervous System | 334 | ||
| Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System | 334 | ||
| Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Receptors | 338 | ||
| Autonomic Neuroeffector Junctions | 342 | ||
| Regulation of Autonomic Function | 343 | ||
| 11.2 The Somatic Nervous System | 345 | ||
| Anatomy of the Somatic Nervous System | 345 | ||
| The Neuromuscular Junction | 345 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 350 | ||
| Exercises | 350 | ||
| 12 Muscle Physiology | 352 | ||
| 12.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure | 353 | ||
| Structure at the Cellular Level | 353 | ||
| Structure at the Molecular Level | 354 | ||
| 12.2 The Mechanism of Force Generation in Muscle | 356 | ||
| The Sliding-Filament Model | 356 | ||
| The Crossbridge Cycle: How Muscles Generate Force | 356 | ||
| Excitation-Contraction Coupling: How Muscle Contractions Are Turned On and Off | 359 | ||
| 12.3 The Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction | 361 | ||
| The Twitch | 361 | ||
| Factors Affecting the Force Generated by Individual Muscle Fibers | 365 | ||
| Regulation of the Force Generated by Whole Muscles | 368 | ||
| Velocity of Shortening | 370 | ||
| 12.4 Skeletal Muscle Metabolism | 370 | ||
| Muscle Cell Metabolism: How Muscle Cells Generate ATP | 370 | ||
| Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers | 373 | ||
| 12.5 Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity | 377 | ||
| Muscle Activity Across Joints | 377 | ||
| Muscle Receptors for Coordinated Activity | 379 | ||
| 12.6 Smooth and Cardiac Muscle | 380 | ||
| Smooth Muscle | 381 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle | 384 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 385 | ||
| Exercises | 386 | ||
| 13 The Cardiovascular System: Cardiac Function | 389 | ||
| 13.1 An Overview of the Cardiovascular System | 390 | ||
| The Heart | 390 | ||
| Blood Vessels | 391 | ||
| Blood | 391 | ||
| 13.2 The Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart and Vasculature | 392 | ||
| Series Flow Through the Cardiovascular System | 392 | ||
| Parallel Flow Within the Systemic or Pulmonary Circuit | 393 | ||
| 13.3 Anatomy of the Heart | 395 | ||
| Myocardium and the Heart Wall | 395 | ||
| Valves and Unidirectional Blood Flow | 395 | ||
| 13.4 Electrical Activity of the Heart | 397 | ||
| The Conduction System of the Heart | 397 | ||
| Spread of Excitation Through the Heart Muscle | 400 | ||
| The Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity in the Heart | 400 | ||
| Recording the Electrical Activity of the Heart with an Electrocardiogram | 403 | ||
| 13.5 The Cardiac Cycle | 407 | ||
| Phases of the Cardiac Cycle | 407 | ||
| Atrial and Ventricular Pressure | 407 | ||
| Aortic Pressure | 409 | ||
| Ventricular Volume | 410 | ||
| Pressure-Volume Curve | 411 | ||
| Heart Sounds | 412 | ||
| 13.6 Cardiac Output and Its Control | 412 | ||
| Autonomic Input to the Heart | 412 | ||
| Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Heart Rate | 413 | ||
| Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Stroke Volume | 415 | ||
| Integration of Factors Affecting Cardiac Output | 419 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 421 | ||
| Exercises | 422 | ||
| 14 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, Blood Flow,and Blood Pressure | 424 | ||
| 14.1 Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow and Blood Pressure | 425 | ||
| Pressure Gradients in the Cardiovascular System | 425 | ||
| Resistance in the Cardiovascular System | 427 | ||
| Relating Pressure Gradients and Resistance in the Systemic Circulation | 428 | ||
| 14.2 Overview of the Vasculature | 428 | ||
| 14.3 Arteries | 429 | ||
| Arteries: A Pressure Reservoir | 429 | ||
| Arterial Blood Pressure | 431 | ||
| 14.4 Arterioles | 432 | ||
| Arterioles and Resistance to Blood Flow | 433 | ||
| Intrinsic Control of Blood Flow Distribution to Organs | 433 | ||
| Extrinsic Control of Arteriole Radius and Mean Arterial Pressure | 438 | ||
| 14.5 Capillaries and Venules | 439 | ||
| Capillary Anatomy | 440 | ||
| Local Control of Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds | 440 | ||
| Movement of Material Across Capillary Walls | 441 | ||
| Venules | 445 | ||
| 14.6 Veins | 446 | ||
| Veins: A Volume Reservoir | 446 | ||
| Factors That Influence Venous Pressure and Venous Return | 446 | ||
| 14.7 The Lymphatic System | 449 | ||
| 14.8 Mean Arterial Pressure and Its Regulation | 449 | ||
| Determinants of Mean Arterial Pressure: Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Total Peripheral Resistance | 449 | ||
| Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure | 450 | ||
| Control of Blood Pressure by LowPressure Baroreceptors (Volume Receptors) | 456 | ||
| 14.9 Other Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes | 456 | ||
| Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia | 457 | ||
| Chemoreceptor Reflexes | 457 | ||
| Thermoregulatory Responses | 457 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 459 | ||
| 15 \rThe Cardiovascular System: Blood | 462 | ||
| 15.1 Overview of the Composition of Blood: The Hematocrit | 463 | ||
| 15.3 Erythrocytes | 464 | ||
| 15.2 Plasma | 464 | ||
| Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport | 465 | ||
| Life Cycle of Erythrocytes | 466 | ||
| 15.4 Leukocytes | 468 | ||
| Basophils | 470 | ||
| Monocytes | 470 | ||
| Neutrophils | 470 | ||
| Eosinophils | 470 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 471 | ||
| 15.5 Platelets and Hemostasis | 471 | ||
| Vascular Spasm | 471 | ||
| Platelet Plug | 471 | ||
| Formation of a Blood Clot | 472 | ||
| 15.6 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease | 475 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 476 | ||
| Exercises | 461 | ||
| 16 The Respiratory System: Pulmonary Ventilation | 478 | ||
| 16.1 Overview of Respiratory Function | 479 | ||
| 16.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System | 479 | ||
| Upper Airways | 479 | ||
| The Respiratory Tract | 480 | ||
| Structures of the Thoracic Cavity | 484 | ||
| 16.3 Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation | 487 | ||
| Pulmonary Pressures | 487 | ||
| Mechanics of Breathing | 488 | ||
| 16.4 Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation | 491 | ||
| Lung Compliance | 491 | ||
| Airway Resistance | 493 | ||
| 16.5 Clinical Significance of Respiratory Volumes and Air Flows | 495 | ||
| Lung Volumes and Capacities | 497 | ||
| Pulmonary Function Tests | 497 | ||
| Alveolar Ventilation | 498 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 500 | ||
| Exercises | 501 | ||
| 17 The Respiratory System:Gas Exchange and Regulation of Breathing | 503 | ||
| 17.1 Overview of the Pulmonary Circulation | 504 | ||
| 17.2 Diffusion of Gases | 506 | ||
| Partial Pressure of Gases | 506 | ||
| Solubility of Gases in Liquids | 506 | ||
| 17.3 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide | 508 | ||
| Gas Exchange in the Lungs | 508 | ||
| Gas Exchange in Respiring Tissue | 509 | ||
| Determinants of Alveolar Po2 and Pco2 | 510 | ||
| 17.4 Transport of Gases in the Blood | 511 | ||
| Oxygen Transport in the Blood | 512 | ||
| Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood | 516 | ||
| 17.5 Central Regulation of Ventilation | 519 | ||
| Neural Control of Breathing by Motor Neurons | 519 | ||
| Generation of the Breathing Rhythm in the Brainstem | 519 | ||
| Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers | 521 | ||
| 17.6 Control of Ventilation by Chemoreceptors | 522 | ||
| Chemoreceptors | 522 | ||
| Chemoreceptor Reflexes | 524 | ||
| 17.7 Local Regulation of Ventilation and Perfusion | 525 | ||
| Ventilation-Perfusion Ratios | 525 | ||
| Local Control of Ventilation and Perfusion | 525 | ||
| 17.8 The Respiratory System in Acid-Base Homeostasis | 526 | ||
| Acid-Base Disturbances in Blood | 526 | ||
| The Role of the Respiratory System in Acid-Base Balance | 527 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 530 | ||
| Exercises | 531 | ||
| 18 Urinary System: Renal Function | 533 | ||
| 18.1 Functions of the Urinary System | 534 | ||
| 18.2 Anatomy of the Urinary System | 535 | ||
| Structures of the Urinary System | 535 | ||
| Macroscopic Anatomy of the Kidney | 535 | ||
| Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney | 536 | ||
| Blood Supply to the Kidney | 538 | ||
| 18.3 Basic Renal Exchange Processes | 538 | ||
| Glomerular Filtration | 540 | ||
| Reabsorption | 545 | ||
| Transport Maximum | 547 | ||
| Secretion | 548 | ||
| 18.4 Regional Specialization of the Renal Tubules | 549 | ||
| Nonregulated Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule | 549 | ||
| Regulated Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct | 550 | ||
| Water Conservation in the Loop of Henle | 550 | ||
| 18.5 Excretion | 550 | ||
| Clearance | 551 | ||
| Excretion Rate | 551 | ||
| Micturition | 555 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 558 | ||
| Exercises | 559 | ||
| 19 The Urinary System:Fluid and ElectrolyteBalance | 561 | ||
| 19.1 The Concept of Balance | 562 | ||
| Factors Affecting the Plasma Composition | 562 | ||
| Solute and Water Balance | 563 | ||
| 19.2 Water Balance | 564 | ||
| Osmolarity and the Movement of Water | 564 | ||
| Water Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule | 566 | ||
| Establishment of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient | 566 | ||
| Role of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient in Water Reabsorption in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct | 569 | ||
| 19.3 Sodium Balance | 573 | ||
| Mechanisms of Sodium Reabsorption in the Renal Tubule | 575 | ||
| The Effects of Aldosterone | 575 | ||
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide | 577 | ||
| 19.4 Potassium Balance | 578 | ||
| Renal Handling of Potassium Ions | 578 | ||
| Regulation of Potassium Secretion by Aldosterone | 578 | ||
| 19.5 Calcium Balance | 579 | ||
| Renal Handling of Calcium Ions | 579 | ||
| Hormonal Control of Plasma Calcium Concentrations | 580 | ||
| 19.6 Interactions Between Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation | 581 | ||
| 19.7 Acid-Base Balance | 583 | ||
| Sources of Acid-Base Disturbances | 584 | ||
| Defense Mechanisms Against Acid-Base Disturbances | 584 | ||
| Compensation for Acid-Base Disturbances | 589 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 591 | ||
| Exercises | 593 | ||
| 20 The Gastrointestinal System | 595 | ||
| 20.1 Overview of Gastrointestinal System Processes | 596 | ||
| 20.2 Functional Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System | 596 | ||
| The Gastrointestinal Tract | 596 | ||
| The Accessory Glands | 605 | ||
| 20.3 Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients and Water | 608 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 609 | ||
| Proteins | 610 | ||
| Lipids | 612 | ||
| Absorption of Vitamins | 615 | ||
| Absorption of Minerals | 616 | ||
| Absorption of Water | 617 | ||
| 20.4 General Principles of Gastrointestinal Regulation | 617 | ||
| Neural and Endocrine Pathways of Gastrointestinal Control | 617 | ||
| Regulation of Food Intake | 619 | ||
| 20.5 Gastrointestinal Secretion and Its Regulation | 620 | ||
| Saliva Secretion | 620 | ||
| Acid and Pepsinogen Secretion in the Stomach | 621 | ||
| Secretion of Pancreatic Juice and Bile | 621 | ||
| Rates of Fluid Movement in the Digestive System | 623 | ||
| 20.6 Gastrointestinal Motility and Its Regulation | 624 | ||
| Electrical Activity in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle | 624 | ||
| Peristalsis and Segmentation | 625 | ||
| Chewing and Swallowing | 625 | ||
| Gastric Motility | 626 | ||
| Motility of the Small Intestine | 627 | ||
| Motility of the Colon | 627 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 629 | ||
| Exercises | 630 | ||
| 21 The Endocrine System: Regulation of Energy Metabolism and Growth | 632 | ||
| 21.1 An Overview of WholeBody Metabolism | 633 | ||
| Anabolism | 633 | ||
| Regulation of Metabolic Pathways | 634 | ||
| 21.2 Energy Intake, Utilization, and Storage | 634 | ||
| Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Carbohydrates | 634 | ||
| Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Proteins | 634 | ||
| Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Fats | 634 | ||
| 21.3 Energy Balance | 635 | ||
| Energy Input | 636 | ||
| Energy Output | 636 | ||
| Metabolic Rate | 636 | ||
| Negative and Positive Energy Balance | 637 | ||
| 21.4 Energy Metabolism During the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States | 637 | ||
| Metabolism During the Absorptive State | 637 | ||
| Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State | 639 | ||
| 21.5 Regulation of Absorptive and Postabsorptive Metabolism | 641 | ||
| The Role of Insulin | 641 | ||
| The Role of Glucagon | 643 | ||
| Negative Feedback Control of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon | 643 | ||
| Effects of Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nervous Activity on Metabolism | 645 | ||
| 21.6 Thermoregulation | 646 | ||
| Temperature Balance | 646 | ||
| Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Between the Body and the External Environment | 646 | ||
| Regulation of Body Temperature | 647 | ||
| Alterations in the Set Point for Thermoregulation: Fever | 648 | ||
| 21.7 Hormonal Regulation of Growth | 649 | ||
| Body Growth | 649 | ||
| Effects of Growth Hormone | 650 | ||
| Other Hormones That Affect Growth | 653 | ||
| 21.8 Thyroid Hormones | 654 | ||
| Synthesis and Secretion of Thyroid Hormones | 654 | ||
| Actions of Thyroid Hormones | 655 | ||
| 21.9 Glucocorticoids | 656 | ||
| Factors Affecting Secretion of Glucocorticoids | 656 | ||
| Actions of Glucocorticoids | 656 | ||
| The Role of Cortisol in the Stress Response | 656 | ||
| Effects of Abnormal Glucocorticoid Secretion | 657 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 658 | ||
| Exercises | 659 | ||
| 22 The Reproductive System | 661 | ||
| 22.1 An Overview of Reproductive Physiology | 662 | ||
| The Role of Gametes in Sexual Reproduction | 662 | ||
| Gene Sorting and Packaging in Gametogenesis: Meiosis | 663 | ||
| Components of the Reproductive System | 664 | ||
| Events Following Fertilization | 665 | ||
| Patterns of Reproductive Activity over the Human Life Span | 667 | ||
| 22.2 The Male Reproductive System | 668 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Organs | 668 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Function in Males | 671 | ||
| Sperm and Their Development | 672 | ||
| The Sexual Response in Males | 674 | ||
| 22.3 The Female Reproductive System | 675 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Organs | 676 | ||
| Ova and Their Development | 678 | ||
| The Sexual Response in Females | 679 | ||
| The Menstrual Cycle | 679 | ||
| Long-Term Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproductive Function | 684 | ||
| 22.4 Fertilization, Implantation, and Pregnancy | 685 | ||
| Events of Fertilization | 685 | ||
| Early Embryonic Development and Implantation | 687 | ||
| Later Embryonic and Fetal Development | 687 | ||
| Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy | 690 | ||
| 22.5 Parturition and Lactation | 691 | ||
| Events of Parturition | 691 | ||
| Lactation | 693 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 695 | ||
| Exercises | 696 | ||
| 23 The Immune System | 698 | ||
| 23.1 Anatomy of the Immune System | 699 | ||
| Physical Barriers | 699 | ||
| Leukocytes | 700 | ||
| Lymphoid Tissues | 702 | ||
| 23.2 Pathogens That Activate the Immune Response | 703 | ||
| Viruses | 703 | ||
| Bacteria | 704 | ||
| Fungi | 705 | ||
| Parasites | 705 | ||
| 23.3 Organization of the Body’s Defenses | 705 | ||
| Nonspecific Defenses | 705 | ||
| Specific Defenses: Immune Responses | 711 | ||
| 23.4 Humoral Immunity | 715 | ||
| The Role of B Lymphocytes in Antibody Production | 715 | ||
| Antibody Function in Humoral Immunity | 716 | ||
| 23.5 CellMediated Immunity | 717 | ||
| Roles of T Lymphocytes in CellMediated Immunity | 717 | ||
| Helper T Cell Activation | 718 | ||
| Cytotoxic T Cell Activation: The Destruction of VirusInfected Cells and Tumor Cells | 719 | ||
| 23.6 Immune Responses in Health and Disease | 720 | ||
| Generating Immunity: Immunization | 720 | ||
| Roles of the Immune System in Transfusion and Transplantation | 721 | ||
| Immune Dysfunctions | 724 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 728 | ||
| Exercises | 729 | ||
| 24 Diabetes Mellitus | 731 | ||
| 24.1 Classification of Diabetes Mellitus | 732 | ||
| Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | 732 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 733 | ||
| 24.2 Acute Effects of Diabetes Mellitus | 734 | ||
| Acute Hyperglycemia | 734 | ||
| Diabetic Ketoacidosis | 734 | ||
| Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma | 734 | ||
| Hypoglycemic Coma | 735 | ||
| 24.3 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Early Stages | 735 | ||
| 24.4 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Advanced Stages | 736 | ||
| Adverse Effects of Hyperglycemia | 736 | ||
| Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on the Microvasculature | 738 | ||
| 24.5 Progression of Diabetes Mellitus to Critical States | 741 | ||
| Effects of Diabetes on the Macrovasculature | 741 | ||
| Diabetic Cardiomyopathy | 741 | ||
| 24.6 Delayed Wound Healing | 742 | ||
| Wound Healing | 742 | ||
| Altered Wound Healing in Diabetes | 742 | ||
| 24.7 Treatment and Management of Diabetes Mellitus | 744 | ||
| 24.8 Current Research on Diabetes Mellitus | 745 | ||
| New Techniques for Insulin Administration | 745 | ||
| Development of New Medicines for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus | 745 | ||
| Nonpharmaceutical Therapies for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus | 745 | ||
| Chapter Summary | 748 | ||
| Exercises | 749 | ||
| Answers to Figure Questions, Apply Your\rKnowledge, and End-of-Chapter Multiple\rChoice and Objective Questions | 751 | ||
| Credits | 758 | ||
| Glossary | 759 | ||
| Index | 778 |