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Abstract
The estimated health impacts and associated economic costs resulting from airborne particulate matter are substantial. Exposure to airborne fine particles ranks highly amongst preventable causes of disease. This book reviews the sources and atmospheric processes affecting airborne particulate matter and consequent impacts upon human health. Examining the latest information on the sources of particles in the atmosphere, both through direct emissions and atmospheric formation, the book also explores the methods which are used to estimate the contributions of different sources to airborne concentrations. Featuring case studies from recent assessments in Europe, the USA, China and India, the book provides a global overview of source apportionment. The health effects are reviewed in the context of the influence of sources, chemical composition and particle size upon relative toxicity. This comprehensive book is an important reference for policymakers and consultants working with pollution and human health, as well as academics working in atmospheric chemistry.
The series has been edited by Professors Hester and Harrison since it began in 1994.
Roy Harrison OBE is Queen Elizabeth II Birmingham Centenary Professor of Environmental Health at the University of Birmingham. In 2004 he was appointed OBE for services to environmental science. Professor Harrison’s research interests lie in the field of environment and human health. His main specialism is in air pollution, from emissions through atmospheric chemical and physical transformations to exposure and effects on human health. Much of this work is designed to inform the development of policy.
Ron Hester is an emeritus professor of chemistry at the University of York. In addition to his research work on a wide range of applications of vibrational spectroscopy, he has been actively involved in environmental chemistry and was a founder member of the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Environment Group. His current activities are mainly as an editor and as an external examiner and assessor on courses, individual promotions, and departmental/subject area evaluations both in the UK and abroad.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | vii | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Editors | xiii | ||
| List of Contributors | xv | ||
| Emissions of Primary Particulate Matter | 1 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 2 Source Categories | 3 | ||
| 2.1 Residential Combustion | 3 | ||
| 2.2 Road Transport | 6 | ||
| 2.3 Energy and Manufacturing Industries | 8 | ||
| 2.4 Maritime Traffic | 9 | ||
| 2.5 Agricultural Activities | 10 | ||
| 2.6 Natural Sources | 11 | ||
| 3 Particle Size Distribution | 13 | ||
| 4 Speciation | 15 | ||
| 4.1 PM Speciation Source Profiles | 17 | ||
| 5 European PM Emission Inventories | 18 | ||
| 6 Long-term Trends in Europe | 20 | ||
| 7 Regulations and Mitigation Measures | 23 | ||
| 7.1 Eco-design Directive | 23 | ||
| 7.2 Diesel Vehicle Emission Standards and Abatement Technologies | 24 | ||
| 7.3 Urban Access Regulations | 25 | ||
| 7.4 MARPOL Convention | 25 | ||
| References | 26 | ||
| Where Did This Particle Come From? Sources of Particle Number and Mass for Human Exposure Estimates | 35 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 35 | ||
| 2 Background | 37 | ||
| 3 Particle Mass Concentrations | 40 | ||
| 4 Particle Number Concentrations | 44 | ||
| 4.1 New-particle Formation | 46 | ||
| 4.2 Primary Particle Number Emissions | 49 | ||
| 4.3 Primary Emissions vs. New-particle Formation | 51 | ||
| 4.4 Issues of Scale | 52 | ||
| 5 Implications for Human Exposure | 55 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 60 | ||
| References | 60 | ||
| Source Apportionment: Principles and Methods | 72 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 73 | ||
| 2 Diurnal, Spatial, and Chemical Patterns Indicate PM Origins | 74 | ||
| 3 Solutions to the CMB Equations | 79 | ||
| 4 CMB Model Assumptions and Effects of Deviations | 83 | ||
| 5 More Information from Existing Samples | 88 | ||
| 6 How to Judge a Source Apportionment Study | 90 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 119 | ||
| References | 119 | ||
| Case Studies of Source Apportionment from North America | 126 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 127 | ||
| 2 Historic Development | 128 | ||
| 3 Applications | 131 | ||
| 3.1 Chemical Mass Balance | 131 | ||
| 3.2 Unmix | 139 | ||
| 3.3 Positive Matrix Factorization | 139 | ||
| 4 Advanced Model Applications | 146 | ||
| 4.1 Constrained Models | 146 | ||
| 4.2 Multiple Sample Type Data | 147 | ||
| 4.3 Time Synchronization Model | 149 | ||
| 4.4 Spatially Distributed Data | 150 | ||
| 4.5 Mixed Way Data | 150 | ||
| 4.6 Size-Composition-Time Data | 153 | ||
| 5 Summary | 155 | ||
| References | 156 | ||
| Case Studies of Source Apportionment and Suggested Measures at Southern European Cities | 168 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 169 | ||
| 2 Methods | 170 | ||
| 2.1 PM Sampling and Measurements | 170 | ||
| 2.2 Sample Treatment and Analysis | 171 | ||
| 2.3 Source Apportionment | 172 | ||
| 3 Results | 173 | ||
| 3.1 PM Levels and Seasonality | 173 | ||
| 3.2 PM Chemical Characterization | 175 | ||
| 3.3 PM Mass Closure | 181 | ||
| 3.4 PM Source Apportionment | 182 | ||
| 4 Comparison Among Case Study Cities | 249 | ||
| 5 Conclusions | 258 | ||
| References | 259 | ||
| PM10 Source Apportionment in Five North Western European Cities—Outcome of the Joaquin Project | 264 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 265 | ||
| 2 Site Description and Chemical Characterisation of PM10 | 266 | ||
| 2.1 Sites | 266 | ||
| 2.2 PM10 Sampling and Gravimetric Analysis | 267 | ||
| 2.3 Chemical Analysis | 267 | ||
| 3 Source Apportionment Using Positive Matrix Factorization | 268 | ||
| 3.1 Data Preparation and Uncertainty Matrix | 268 | ||
| 3.2 Positive Matrix Factorization | 269 | ||
| 4 Results and Discussion | 271 | ||
| 4.1 PM10 Mass Concentrations | 271 | ||
| 4.2 Identification and Temporal Variation of the Calculated Factors | 272 | ||
| 4.3 Spatial Variation of the Source Profiles | 277 | ||
| 4.4 Wind-directional and Trajectory Analysis of the Source Profiles | 281 | ||
| 4.5 Source Profiles on Days Exceeding the Daily Limit Value | 285 | ||
| 4.6 Estimated Uncertainty of the PMF Analysis | 287 | ||
| 5 Conclusions | 288 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 289 | ||
| References | 289 | ||
| PM2.5 Source Apportionment in China | 293 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 293 | ||
| 2 Time Trends | 294 | ||
| 2.1 Visibility Trends | 294 | ||
| 2.2 Emission Trends | 294 | ||
| 2.3 Meteorology Trends | 295 | ||
| 3 Sources of PM2.5 in China | 295 | ||
| 3.1 Methods for Source Apportionment | 295 | ||
| 3.2 Source Apportionment Results in China | 296 | ||
| 3.3 PM2.5 Source Apportionment in Beijing, China | 303 | ||
| 4 Future Research | 306 | ||
| 4.1 Health Effects | 306 | ||
| 4.2 Online Source Apportionment | 306 | ||
| 4.3 Integration of Different Source Apportionment Methods | 308 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 308 | ||
| References | 308 | ||
| Case Studies of Source Apportionment from the Indian Sub-continent | 315 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 315 | ||
| 2 Source Signatures from Indian Sub-continent | 320 | ||
| 3 Case Studies from the Indian Sub-continent | 322 | ||
| 3.1 India | 322 | ||
| 3.2 Pakistan | 325 | ||
| 3.3 Bangladesh | 329 | ||
| 3.4 Nepal | 332 | ||
| 3.5 Sri Lanka | 335 | ||
| 3.6 Bhutan | 335 | ||
| 3.7 The Maldives | 335 | ||
| 4 Concluding Remarks | 336 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 338 | ||
| References | 338 | ||
| Health Effects of Airborne Particles in Relation to Composition, Size and Source | 344 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 345 | ||
| 2 Current Evidence on Differential Toxicity | 347 | ||
| 2.1 Black Carbon and Organic Carbon | 347 | ||
| 2.2 Metals | 349 | ||
| 2.3 Inorganic Secondary Aerosols | 349 | ||
| 2.4 Size | 349 | ||
| 2.5 Source | 351 | ||
| 3 Overall Conclusions on Differential Toxicity | 352 | ||
| 4 Global Variation in the Composition and Toxicity of Particulate Matter | 352 | ||
| 4.1 North America | 353 | ||
| 4.2 Europe | 357 | ||
| 4.3 Western Pacific and Southeast Asia | 363 | ||
| 5 Discussion | 369 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 372 | ||
| References | 372 | ||
| Subject Index | 383 |