Alternative Energy Sources for Green Chemistry

Georgios Stefanidis; Andrzej Stankiewicz

BOOK

Alternative Energy Sources for Green Chemistry

Georgios Stefanidis | Andrzej Stankiewicz

(2016)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78262-363-2
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 428
Subjects: Chemistry
Environmental chemistry
Organic chemistry
Biochemical engineering
Industrial chemistry & chemical engineering
Environmental science, engineering & technology

Abstract

The use of alternative energy forms and transfer mechanisms is one of the key approaches of process intensification. In recent years, significant amounts of research have been carried out in developing chemical processing technologies enhanced by plasma, electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic and ultra-sound waves and high gravity fields. Discussing the broad impact of alternative energy transfer technologies on reactions, separations and materials synthesis, this book reports on recent breakthrough results in various application areas. It provides a comprehensive overview of the current developments in the field. The book enables industrialists, academics and postgraduates in alternative-energy based processing to see the potential of alternative energies for green chemistry and sustainability of chemical manufacturing.

Andrzej Stankiewicz is Professor of Process Intensification at Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. His research focuses on the application of alternative energy forms and transfer mechanisms for the intensification of chemical reactions.

Giorgos Stefanidis is Assistant Professor at the Chair of Intensified Reaction and Separation Systems of Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. His research focusses on process intensification, chemical reactor design and alternative energy forms.

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover	Cover
Alternative Energy Sources for Green Chemistry	i
Preface	vii
Contents	xi
Chapter 1 - Microwave-Assisted Green Organic Synthesis	1
1.1 Introduction	1
1.2 Solvent-Free Reactions	4
1.3 Microwave Susceptors	8
1.3.1 Graphite As a Microwave Susceptor	8
1.3.2 Silicon Carbide (SiC) As a Microwave Susceptor	10
1.3.3 Other Microwave Susceptors	14
1.4 Reactions in Solution	15
1.4.1 Reactions in Water	16
1.4.2 Reactions in Ionic Liquids (ILs)	19
1.4.3 Fluorous Chemistry	22
1.5 Flow Chemistry	24
1.6 Conclusions	30
References	30
Chapter 2 - Microwave-Assisted Plant Extraction Processes	34
2.1 Introduction	34
2.2 Microwave Heating Foundations	35
2.2.1 Volumetric Heating Term	37
2.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction Systems	39
2.3.1 Usage of Modified Domestic Microwave Ovens	40
2.3.2 Usage of Commercial Microwave Reactors	41
2.3.3 Continuous and High-Scale Microwave Applicators for MAE	43
2.4 Plants and Components of Interest for Microwave-Assisted Extraction Processes	43
2.4.1 Essential Oils from Herbs	43
2.4.2 Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidants	44
2.4.3 Oils, Lipids and Fatty Acids	44
2.4.4 Polysaccharides and Pectin Extraction	45
2.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction Techniques	45
2.5.1 Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction	47
2.5.2 Microwave-Assisted Extraction	48
2.5.3 Microwave Pre-Treatment	50
2.6 Extraction Fundamentals	50
2.6.1 Heat Generation	51
2.6.2 Mass Transfer	52
2.6.3 Kinetics Modelling	54
2.7 Operating Variables	55
2.7.1 Time	55
2.7.2 Microwave Power and Energy	56
2.7.3 Temperature	57
2.7.4 Particle Size	57
2.7.5 Solvent	58
2.7.6 Pressure	58
2.8 Conclusions	59
References	59
Chapter 3 - Low-Temperature Microwave Pyrolysis and Large Scale Microwave Applications	64
3.1 Microwave Technology	64
3.1.1 Microwave Technology Applications	65
3.1.2 History of Heating Application of Microwave Irradiation	66
3.1.3 Microwave Equipment	67
3.2 Heating	68
3.2.1 General Discussion	68
3.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating	69
3.3 Microwave Pyrolysis/Torrefaction	72
3.3.1 Introduction	72
3.3.2 Low-Temperature Pyrolysis of Constituent Biomass Components	73
3.3.2.1 Cellulose	73
3.3.2.2 Hemi-Cellulose	78
3.3.2.3 Lignin	79
3.3.3 Microwave Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass	80
3.3.3.1 Wood	80
3.3.3.2 Wheat Straw and Rice Straw	81
3.3.3.3 Macro and Micro Algae	83
3.3.3.4 Oil Palm	83
3.4 Commercial Applications of Microwaves	84
3.4.1 Drying Apparatus	85
3.4.2 Other Processes	86
3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Biomass Activation	87
3.5 Conclusion	89
Acknowledgements	89
References	90
Chapter 4 - Microwave Reactor Concepts: From Resonant Cavities to Traveling Fields	93
4.1 Introduction: The Limitations of Thermal Reactor Activation	93
4.2 Resonant Microwave Cavities	95
4.2.1 Multimode Cavities	97
4.2.2 Single Mode Cavities	100
4.2.2.1 CEM Discover	100
4.2.2.2 TE10n Cavities	103
4.3 Advanced Non-Cavity Applicator Types	110
4.3.1 Internal Transmission Line	111
4.3.2 Traveling Microwave Reactor	112
4.3.2.1 Liquid Phase Process Configuration	115
4.3.2.2 Gas–Solid Phase Process Configuration	119
4.4 Conclusions	121
Acknowledgements	122
References	122
Chapter 5 - Greener Processing Routes for Reactions and Separations Based on Use of Ultrasound and Hydrodynamic Cavitation	126
5.1 Introduction	126
5.2 Mechanism of Cavitation-Based Process Intensification	128
5.3 Reactor Configurations	130
5.3.1 Sonochemical Reactors	130
5.3.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors	133
5.4 Guidelines for the Selection of Cavitational Reactor Designs and Operating Parameters	136
5.5 Comparison of Two Modes of Cavity Generation	138
5.6 Overview of Intensification of Chemical Synthesis	140
5.7 Overview of Applications in the Area of Wastewater Treatment	143
5.8 Overview of Cavitational Reactors for Intensified Separations	147
5.8.1 Crystallization	147
5.8.2 Extraction	150
5.8.3 Adsorption	153
5.8.4 Distillation	155
5.9 Summary	156
References	157
Chapter 6 - Magnetically Assisted Separations in Chemical Industry and Biotechnology: Basic Principles and Applications	161
6.1 Introduction	161
6.1.1 Magnetic Separations at a Glance	162
6.1.2 Topics Analyzed at a Glance	162
6.1.2.1 Mechanical Magnetic Separations	163
6.1.2.2 Separations Involving Non-Tailored Magnetic Solids	163
6.1.2.3 Separations Involving Magnetic Solids with Tailored and Functionalized Surfaces	163
6.2 Mechanical Magnetic Separations	163
6.2.1 Magnetically-Assisted Fluidization (MAF)	164
6.2.1.1 Operating Modes	165
6.2.1.2 Magnetic Fields Used	165
6.2.1.3 Hydrodynamic Background	167
6.2.1.3.1 Solids Flow Through the Reactor: Operating Modes.There are two operating modes with respects the solids flow through the reactor...	167
6.2.1.3.2 Fluidization Vessels.In general, fluidization is performed in cylindrical vessels (columns) allowing a homogeneous gas distribut...	167
6.2.1.3.3 Bed Regimes Map.Commonly, the original studies are motivated by the need to operate either: at high working velocities, impossib...	168
6.2.2 Magnetically-Assisted Particle–Particle Separations by Density	169
6.2.2.1 Batch-Solids Separations	169
6.2.2.2 Continuous Cross-Flow MSB for Particle–Particle Separations	170
6.2.3 Particle Separation from Flow	171
6.2.3.1 Magnetic Matrix Filters	171
6.2.3.2 MSB-Based Aerosol Filters	172
6.2.3.2.1 Aerosols Capture in Magnetization FIRST Mode: Axial Fields.This is the oldest application of MSB filters based on the doctoral t...	173
6.2.3.2.2\rAerosols Capture in Magnetization LAST Mode: Axial Fields.The group of Tien58–60 developed the idea for MSB filters in more deta...	174
6.2.3.2.3 Aerosols Capture in Magnetization FIRST Mode: Transverse Fields.In axial fields, in order to create an almost homogeneous partic...	174
6.2.3.3 Aerosol Filtration by Magnetically Semi-Fluidized Beds	174
6.2.3.4 Magnetically-Assisted Cake Filtration	175
6.2.4 Magnetically-Assisted Gravity Sedimentation	176
6.3 Magnetic Separations Involving Magnetic Solids with Non-Tailored Surfaces	177
6.3.1 Magnetic Seeding	177
6.3.2 Adsorption: Focusing on Magnetite as Adsorbent	178
6.3.2.1 Adsorption of Hazardous Species: Examples	180
6.3.2.1.1\rRadioactive contaminants	180
Cesium. Milonjic and Ruvarac86 reported the adsorption of cesium (Cs), cobalt (Co2+ as less than 5 wt%) and cerium (Ce+) by magn...	180
Cobalt. Cotten and Navratil88 observed the adsorption of cobalt in a static field of a neodymium–iron–boron permanent magnet irr...	180
Uranium. Uranium and associated radionuclides, in particular radium and radon, pose significant health risks to humans due to bo...	180
Europium. Being a typical member of the lanthanide series, europium (Eu), usually assumes the oxidation state of +3, but due to ...	181
6.3.2.1.2\rHeavy Metals	181
Chromium. Namdeo and Bajpai93 investigated deposition of a hexavalent chromium Cr(vi) onto synthetic magnetite nanoparticles fro...	181
Selenium. Selenium (a metalloid found in group VI of the periodic table below sulfur) is a natural trace element found in bedroc...	181
Arsenic. Arsenic is a heavy metal occurring in the environment in different oxidation states and form various species, e.g., As ...	181
6.3.2.1.3\rPost-Adsorption Separations.The next step, after the adsorption, is the removal of the magnetic adsorbents from the solution. Co...	182
6.3.2.1.4\rCoarse Particles vs. Nanoparticles As Adsorbents.The main problem in the sorption by nanoparticles is the impossibility to organ...	183
6.3.2.1.5\rMagnetically-Assisted Fluidization: An Alternative in the Adsorption Separations.The sorption with magnetic adsorbents should co...	183
6.3.3 Metal Recovery by Cementation	183
6.3.3.1 Copper Cementation by Iron	184
6.3.3.2 Silver Cementation by Iron	185
6.4 Magnetic Separations Involving Tailored and Functionalized Magnetic Solids	185
6.4.1 Why Magnetic Beads	186
6.4.2 Magnetic Bead Manufacturing	186
6.4.3 Examples of Bio-Separation Processes	188
6.4.3.1 Affinity Chromatography	188
6.4.3.2 MSB-Based Cell Affinity Separations	189
6.4.3.3 Magnetic solid-phase extraction	189
6.4.4 Magnetic Membrane Separations	189
6.5 Final Comments	190
References	191
Chapter 7 - Prospects of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Magnetic Field-Assisted Mixing of Fluids with Relevance to Chemical Engineering	198
7.1 Introduction	198
7.2 Mixing Based on Ferrohydrodynamics (FHD)	199
7.2.1 FHD Transport Equations	201
7.2.2 Mixing with Static Magnetic Fields (SMF)	202
7.2.3 Mixing with Oscillating Magnetic Fields (OMF)	207
7.2.4 Mixing with Rotating Magnetic Fields (RMF)	211
7.2.4.1 Comparison of RMF with OMF and SMF in Lateral Nanomixing of Ferrofluid Capillary Flows	214
7.3 Lorentz Force-Driven Mixing	217
7.4 Conclusion	223
Nomenclature	224
References	225
Chapter 8 - Photocatalysis: Past Achievements and Future Trends	227
8.1 Introduction	227
8.2 Catalyst Development	230
8.3 Photocatalytic Reactors	246
8.3.1 Suspended Systems	246
8.3.2 Immobilised Systems	247
8.3.2.1 Flat Plate	247
8.3.2.2 Honeycomb Monolith Photocatalytic Reactor	248
8.3.2.3 Optical Fiber Photocatalytic Reactors	249
8.3.2.4 Annular Reactors	252
8.3.2.5 Packed-Bed Photocatalytic Reactors	252
8.3.2.6 Microreactors	253
8.3.3 Light Sources	254
8.3.3.1 Solar-Based Photocatalytic Reactors	255
8.3.3.2 Artificial Light Sources	258
8.4 Conclusions	259
References	260
Chapter 9 - Photocatalytic Reactors in Environmental Applications	270
9.1 Introduction	270
9.2 Wastewater Treatment	272
9.2.1 Slurry Reactors	273
9.2.1.1 Multi-Lamp Reactor (MLR)	276
9.2.1.2 Rotating Annular Reactor (RAR)	278
9.2.1.3 Fountain Reactor (FR)	279
9.2.1.4 Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor (PMR)	280
9.2.2 Immobilized Catalyst Reactors (ICR)	282
9.2.2.1 Parallel Plate Reactor (PPR)	284
9.2.2.2 Microreactor	285
9.2.2.3 Optical Fibre Reactor (OFR)	286
9.2.2.4 Foam Reactor (FR)	286
9.2.2.5 Spinning Disc Reactor (SDR)	288
9.3 Benchmarking Wastewater Treatment Reactors	290
9.4 Conclusions	292
References	293
Chapter 10 - Plasma-Assisted Nitrogen Fixation Reactions	296
10.1 Introduction	296
10.1.1 Background – Nitrogen Fixation	296
10.1.2 Timeline of N-Fixation Process Development	297
10.1.3 Introduction to Plasmas	302
10.2 Plasma-Assisted Nitrogen Fixation	303
10.2.1 Plasma Nitric Oxide Synthesis	303
10.2.1.1 Industrial-Scale Plasma Nitric Oxide Synthesis Processes	303
10.2.1.2 Laboratory Studies on Plasma Nitric Oxide Synthesis	306
10.2.1.2.1\rPlasma Reactor Configurations.Various plasma types have been investigated to perform the nitric oxide synthesis. Table 10.2 summ...	306
10.2.1.2.2\rPlasma Catalysis for Nitric Oxide Synthesis.The combination of catalyst and the plasma reactor has not been investigated thoroug...	310
10.2.1.3 Mechanism of Plasma Nitric Oxide Synthesis	313
10.2.1.4 Energy Efficiency of Plasma Nitric Oxide Synthesis	316
10.2.1.5 Applications Beyond Nitric Acid	318
10.2.1.5.1\rDirect Agricultural Fertilizer.The NO produced with lower concentrations in plasma processes can be used directly as a fertilize...	318
10.2.1.5.2\rMedical Use.Inhaled NO has been extensively used in clinical treatment of pulmonary hypertension, high altitude pulmonary edema,...	318
10.2.1.5.3\rIn Liquid.In a typical plasma nitric oxide process, NO is first oxidized to NO2, then NO2 is absorbed in water to form HNO3. Ins...	319
10.2.1.5.4\rLightning.Fixation of nitrogen by lightning is of great importance to understand the environmental chemistry and evolution of th...	319
10.2.2 Plasma Ammonia Synthesis	319
10.2.2.1 Laboratory-Scale Efforts to Improve Plasma NH3 Synthesis Process	319
10.2.2.1.1\rPlasma Reactor Configurations.Non-equilibrium plasmas which operate at ambient temperature are widely investigated as a promisin...	320
10.2.2.1.2\rPlasma Catalysis for Ammonia Synthesis.As can be learnt from the above section, the surface reaction of N and H is an important ...	327
10.2.2.2 Energy Requirement for Plasma Ammonia Synthesis	329
10.2.2.3 Applications of Plasma NH3 Synthesis	329
10.2.3 Hydrogen Cyanide Synthesis	329
10.2.3.1 Conventional Hydrogen Cyanide Processes	329
10.2.3.2 Plasma Hydrogen Cyanide Process	330
10.2.3.3 Kinetics and Mechanism of Plasma HCN Synthesis	330
10.3 Conclusions and Outlook	332
Acknowledgements	333
References	333
Chapter 11 - Higee Technologies and Their Applications to Green Intensified Processing	339
11.1 Introduction	339
11.2 Spinning Disc Reactor (SDR)	340
11.2.1 Design and Operating Principles	340
11.2.2 Green Processing Applications of SDR	343
11.2.2.1 Polymerisations	343
11.2.2.2 Reactive Precipitations	346
11.2.2.3 Catalytic/Enzymatic Transformations	347
11.2.3 Rotor–stator SDR	349
11.3 Rotating Packed Bed (RPB)	349
11.3.1 Design and Operating Principles	349
11.3.2 Green Processing Applications of RPB	351
11.3.2.1 Absorption Processes	352
11.3.2.1.1\rCarbon Capture Applications.Although distillation was one of the earliest applications of the RPB,40 there has been much renewed...	352
11.3.2.1.2\rSO2 and NOx Absorption.Although the focus lately has primarily been on CO2 sequestration in order to meet environmental legislat...	352
11.3.2.2 Reactive Precipitations	353
11.3.3 Novel Variations of RPB designs	353
11.4 Concluding Remarks	354
References	355
Chapter 12 - High-Gravity Operation in Vortex Chambers for the Generation of High-Efficiency Fluidized Beds	360
12.1 Introduction on Fluidization in a High-G Field	360
12.2 Rotating Fluidized Beds in a (Static) Vortex Chamber	362
12.3 Hydrodynamic Characteristics	363
12.3.1 Fluidization in the Tangential and Radial Direction	363
12.3.2 Free Vortex Versus Solid Body Type Rotation and Flexibility in the Solids Loading	364
12.3.3 Flexibility in the Gas Flow Rate	366
12.3.4 Large-Scale Non-Uniformities and Bed Stability	368
12.3.5 Meso-Scale Non-Uniformities	369
12.3.6 Further Remarks on the Gas and Solids Phase Flow Pattern	371
12.4 Design Aspects	375
12.4.1 Design Objectives	375
12.4.2 Gas Inlets	375
12.4.3 Gas Outlet/Chimney	381
12.4.4 Solids Inlet	384
12.4.5 Solids Outlet	387
12.4.6 Other Design Aspects	388
12.5 Intensification of Interfacial Mass and Heat Transfer	388
12.6 Intensification of Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactions	394
12.7 Extensions of the Concept and Multi-Zone Operation	396
12.8 Conclusions and Outlook	400
References	402
Subject Index	405

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