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From Empire to Republic

From Empire to Republic

Taner Akçam

(2008)

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Book Details

Abstract

Taner Akçam is one of the first Turkish academics to acknowledge and discuss openly the Armenian Genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman-Turkish government in 1915. This book discusses western political policies towards the region generally, and represents the first serious scholarly attempt to understand the Genocide from a perpetrator rather than victim perspective, and to contextualize those events within Turkey's political history. By refusing to acknowledge the fact of genocide, successive Turkish governments not only perpetuate massive historical injustice, but also pose a fundamental obstacle to Turkey's democratization today.
Taner Akçam is Visiting Professor at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities.
'Taner Akçam is one of the new generation of scholars from Turkey developing a new understanding of Turkish history, and who are trying to explore the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic. In Turkey, this subject has been made taboo politically and in official historical writing, and efforts at seeking historical truth and justice are full of personal risks. We hope that his example of courage and intellectual honesty will contribute to a better understanding between peoples in the region.' Yair Auron, The Open University of Israel 'This book is original, discriminating, and confronts profound issues. It should be accessible to a wide audience, not scholars alone. From Empire to Republic is a book that could have a large impact on how both Turkish history and the Armenian Genocide are understood' Roger W. Smith, Professor Emeritus, Department of Government, College of William and Mary 'Taner Akçam‘s approach to the analysis of the lingering Turkish-Armenian conflict is as novel as it is phenomenal. He proposes a new kind of scholarly dialogue that is based on non-partisan, authentic official documents and upon scholars, both Turkish and Armenian, whose commitment to unadulterated truth is optimal' Vahakn N. Dadrian, Zoryan Institute 'Dr. Akçam has been working tirelessly, and against tremendous odds,to overcome prejudices and biases in order to initiate dialoguebetween the Turks and the Armenians. He has diligently delved into primary sources to understand, illuminate and analyze some of the darker aspects of human behavior in general and the Armenian tragedy in particular. His critical focus on this particular silence in Turkish history is bound to bolster the democratic forces in that society. Dr. Akçam‘s scholarship is meticulous, his perspectives illuminating, and his moral fortitude inspiring. In all, what is most remarkable is not only his perseverance, but also his genuine sense of optimism' Fatma Müge Göçek, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 'Offers informative reading for those interested in debates surrounding the Armenian genocide.' Hilmar Kaiser 'Taner Akçam has gained prominence in academic circles as the first Turkish historian to publicly argue that the disappearance of the Armenian population from Anatolia in the last decades of the Ottoman Empire was the result of genocide. This book, a set of inter-related essays on the place of the Armenian question in Turkish public life, will not make Akçam any less controversial a figure. He focuses on the mentality of the perpetrator rather than the victim, and argues that the humiliating transformation 'From Empire to Republic' was the key experience leading to the emergence of a genocidal mentality among the Young Turks.' Bill Kissane, Nation's and Nationalism, Volume 14, April 2008

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Contents v
Preface ix
Introduction 1
Notes 10
1. What Are Turkey’s Fundamental Problems? A Model for Understanding Turkey Today 11
The Fundamental Problem: the Failure to Decide on a System 12
Hypocritical Behavior: Societal Schizophrenia 16
A Civil–Political Culture of Impropriety 18
The Reasons for This State of Affairs Must Be Sought in the Republic’s Formative Years 21
The Republic Was Founded on Taboos 23
Reading the History of the Republic as the History of Revolts against Taboos 25
The Situation: Stalemate 27
The Rebirth of the ‘Eastern Question’ 30
The Western Connection: The Crucial Condition for Democratization 32
Comparison between Germany and Turkey 33
Notes 37
2. A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Turkish National Identity 39
The Difficulty in Comprehending Acts of Genocide 41
The Perspectives of ‘Victim’ and ‘‘Perpetrator’ 43
Genocide as a Product of National Identity 44
Understanding Turkish National Identity 46
The Five Main Elements for Understanding Turkish National Identity 49
‘Annihilation Psychosis’ and the Decision for Genocide 54
Notes 57
3. Some Aspects of Turkish National Identity and the Armenian Genocide 59
Turkish National Identity and Some of its Characteristics 61
‘Delayed’ Turkish National Identity and the Aggressiveness Resulting from the Anxiety about Closing the Gap 62
Turkish National Identity: A Reaction to Continual Humiliation 67
The Nation Destined to Rule: The Turks 73
Turkish National Identity Developed against a Fear of Extinction 76
Turkish National Identity and Christian Enmity 78
Turkish National Identity: Caught Between the Glory of the Past and the Humiliation of the Present 87
The Desire to Avenge Massacres and Territorial Losses 92
The West’s Double Standard and the Tactics of the Christian Minorities 96
Turkish National Identity and the Perception of Humiliation in Relation to Human Rights and Democracy 100
Spiritual Unity and Integrity against the Foreign and Internal Enemy 103
Notes 107
4. The Homogenizing and Ethnic Cleansing of Anatolia 115
On the Process of Nation Building 116
The Second Wave of Nation Building 117
Religion and Nation Forming 119
The Second Wave of Nation Forming and the Kurdish Question 122
A Common Characteristic of Both Nation-forming Processes 124
How Did Anatolia Become Homogenized? 127
Ottomanism for the ‘Union of Peoples’ 128
The Idea of a Homogeneous National State in Place of the ‘Union of Peoples' 130
Turkism Replaces Ottomanism 134
The Theoretical Framework for Turkism 137
Turkification Put into Practice 139
Concrete Plans for the Homogenization of Anatolia 141
Economic Measures 141
Political Steps 143
The Last Wave of Turkification: The Armenian Genocide 149
Notes 151
5. The Decision for Genocide in the Light of Ottoman-Turkish Documents 158
The Reorganization of Tes¸kilat-ı Mahsusa 158
The Gangs of the Special Organization 160
Three Sources for Recruitment of the Gangs 161
First Actions of the Gangs 163
Making the Decision for Genocide 164
The Decision Was Made After Long Deliberations 166
Everything Is Reorganized 168
How Was the Genocide Organized? 168
The Role of the CUP Secretaries and Bahaettin S¸akir 171
Talât Pas¸a as General Coordinator and His Telegrams 174
Notes 175
6. The Treaties of Sèvres and Lausanne: An Alternative Perspective 180
The Views of the Entente Powers Concerning the Punishment of the Turks 182
What was the Concrete Understanding of Punishment? 185
Attitudes toward Punishing ‘the Turks’ 190
Various Attitudes on the Question of War Guilt 192
Attitudes Regarding Those Guilty of Massacre 194
The Armenian Genocide as a Handicap for the Anatolian Movement 196
An Attempt at a Conclusion 200
Notes 204
7. The Causes and Effects of Making Turkish History Taboo 208
On Taboos 210
The Desire to Forget History: A Defense Mechanism 211
Hysterical-Neurotic Behavior 213
The Reasons That Turkish Society Desires to Erase History from Its Memory 216
Toward a Conclusion 222
Notes 224
8. The Genocide and Turkey 226
A Simple Model by Which to Understand Turkey 229
Why Do ‘Turks’ Get So Upset When The Subject Is Brought Up? 233
We Do Not Want the Identity That We Have Created to Be Dissolved 237
Notes 241
9. Some Theoretical Thoughts on the Obstacles to Armenian–Turkish Reconciliation 243
Thinking in Collective Categories:The Terms ‘Turks’ and ‘Armenians’ 244
How Do We Define Collective Identities? 246
Constructing the ‘Other’ 249
Dialogue and Reconciliation 250
Notes 252
Select Bibliography 254
Index 265