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Abstract
Edexcel A level Chemistry Student Book 2
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Topic 11: Further equilibrium | 8 | ||
| Chapter 11.1: Chemical equilibrium | 8 | ||
| 1 Equilibrium constant, Kc | 10 | ||
| Homogeneous reactions | 10 | ||
| Heterogeneous reactions | 11 | ||
| 2 Equilibrium constant, Kp | 12 | ||
| Homogeneous reactions | 12 | ||
| Heterogeneous reactions | 12 | ||
| 3 Effect of temperature on equilibrium constants | 14 | ||
| Effect of temperature on Kp and Kc | 14 | ||
| 4 Effect of concentration, pressure and catalysts on equilibrium constants | 16 | ||
| Effect of concentration | 16 | ||
| Effect of pressure | 16 | ||
| Effect of adding a catalyst | 17 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 18 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 20 | ||
| Topic 12: Acid-base equilibria | 22 | ||
| Chapter 12.1: Strong and weak acids | 22 | ||
| 1 The Brønsted–Lowry theory | 24 | ||
| Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases | 24 | ||
| Strong and weak acids | 25 | ||
| 2 Hydrogen ion concentration and the pH scale | 27 | ||
| Hydrogen ion concentration and pH | 27 | ||
| Ka and pKa values | 28 | ||
| 3 Ionic product of water, Kw | 30 | ||
| Dissociation of water | 30 | ||
| pH of aqueous solutions of strong bases | 30 | ||
| 4 Analysing data from pH measurements | 32 | ||
| Comparing solutions through pH measurement | 32 | ||
| Effect of dilution on the pH of aqueous solutions of acids | 33 | ||
| Determining Ka of a weak acid from experimental data | 34 | ||
| Chapter 12.2: Acid–base titrations | 35 | ||
| 1 Acid–base titrations, pH curves and indicators | 35 | ||
| Acid–base titrations | 35 | ||
| Acid–base indicators | 36 | ||
| Strong acid–strong base titration | 37 | ||
| Weak acid–strong base titration | 37 | ||
| Strong acid–weak base titration | 38 | ||
| Weak acid–weak base titration | 38 | ||
| 2 Buffer solutions | 39 | ||
| What is a buffer solution? | 39 | ||
| Calculating the pH of a buffer solution | 39 | ||
| 3 Buffer solutions and pH curves | 43 | ||
| Buffer action during a titration | 43 | ||
| Determining Ka from a pH titration curve | 43 | ||
| Alternative method | 44 | ||
| 4 Enthalpy changes of neutralisation for strong and weak acids | 45 | ||
| Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation | 45 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 46 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 48 | ||
| Topic 13: Further energetics | 50 | ||
| Chapter 13.1: Lattice energy | 50 | ||
| 1 Lattice energy, ΔlatticeH, and Born–Haber cycles | 52 | ||
| Lattice energy | 52 | ||
| Standard enthalpy change of atomisation,ΔatHθ | 53 | ||
| Electron affinity | 53 | ||
| Born–Haber cycles | 53 | ||
| 2 Experimental and theoretical lattice energy | 56 | ||
| Experimental lattice energy | 56 | ||
| Theoretical lattice energy | 56 | ||
| The extent of covalent character: polarisation of the anion | 57 | ||
| 3 Enthalpy changes of solution and hydration | 59 | ||
| Enthalpy change of solution, ΔsolH | 59 | ||
| Enthalpy change of hydration, ΔhydH | 59 | ||
| Relationship between ΔsolH, ΔhydH and ΔlatticeH | 61 | ||
| Chapter 13.2: Entropy | 62 | ||
| 1 Introduction to entropy | 62 | ||
| What makes a reaction occur? | 62 | ||
| Exothermic and endothermic reactions | 62 | ||
| Spontaneous processes | 63 | ||
| Entropy | 63 | ||
| 2 Total entropy | 64 | ||
| Total entropy change, ΔStotal | 64 | ||
| Entropy change of the system | 64 | ||
| Entropy change of the surroundings | 65 | ||
| Calculating the total entropy change, ΔStotal | 65 | ||
| Summary | 66 | ||
| The role of temperature | 66 | ||
| 3 Understanding entropy changes | 67 | ||
| Reactions involving a change of state | 67 | ||
| Reactions involving a change in number of moles from reactants to products | 67 | ||
| Dissolving ionic solids in water | 67 | ||
| Chapter 13.3: Gibbs energy | 70 | ||
| 1 The Second Law and Gibbs energy | 70 | ||
| Gibbs energy, ΔG | 70 | ||
| Summary | 70 | ||
| Thermodynamic feasibility of chemical reactions | 71 | ||
| 2 Gibbs energy and equilibrium | 72 | ||
| Relationship between the equilibrium constant, K, and the Gibbs energy change, ΔG | 72 | ||
| Calculating K for a reaction | 72 | ||
| Relationship between the equilibrium constant and temperature | 73 | ||
| Special cases | 73 | ||
| 3 Some applications of Gibbs energy: further understanding | 74 | ||
| Solubility of salts | 74 | ||
| Strength of acids | 76 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 78 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 80 | ||
| Topic 14: Further redox | 82 | ||
| Chapter 14.1: Standard electrode potential | 82 | ||
| 1 Standard electrode (redox) potentials | 84 | ||
| Revision of oxidation and reduction | 84 | ||
| Standard electrode (redox) potential | 84 | ||
| Measuring standard electrode potentials of more complicated redox systems | 88 | ||
| The electrochemical series | 88 | ||
| 2 Electrochemical cells | 90 | ||
| Electrochemical cells | 90 | ||
| 3 Standard electrode potentials and thermodynamic feasibility | 92 | ||
| Making predictions using standard electrode potentials | 92 | ||
| Chapter 14.2: Redox in action | 96 | ||
| 1 Storage cells and fuel cells | 96 | ||
| Storage cells | 96 | ||
| Fuel cells | 96 | ||
| 2 Redox titrations | 98 | ||
| Redox titrations with potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 | 98 | ||
| Redox titrations with iodine and sodium thiosulfate | 100 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 102 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 104 | ||
| Topic 15: Transition metals | 106 | ||
| Chapter 15.1: Principles of transition metal chemistry | 106 | ||
| 1 Transition metal electronic configurations | 108 | ||
| Which elements are the transition metals? | 108 | ||
| Electronic configurations | 108 | ||
| 2 Ligands and complexes | 110 | ||
| Symbols and equations without ligands | 110 | ||
| Symbols and equations with ligands | 110 | ||
| Examples of ligands | 111 | ||
| Naming complexes | 111 | ||
| 3 The origin of colour in complexes | 112 | ||
| A complex explanation! | 112 | ||
| The electromagnetic spectrum | 112 | ||
| The colour wheel | 112 | ||
| Colour depends on electrons in 3d energy levels | 113 | ||
| 4 Common shapes of complexes | 114 | ||
| Predicting the shapes of complexes | 114 | ||
| 5 Square planar complexes | 116 | ||
| Square planar molecules | 116 | ||
| Cis-platin | 116 | ||
| 6 Multidentate ligands | 118 | ||
| Denticity | 118 | ||
| Bidentate ligands | 118 | ||
| Multidentate ligands | 119 | ||
| The stability of complexes | 120 | ||
| Haemoglobin and oxygen transport | 120 | ||
| Haemoglobin and carbon monoxide | 121 | ||
| Chapter 15.2: Transition metal reactions | 122 | ||
| 1 Different types of reaction | 122 | ||
| Types of reaction | 122 | ||
| 2 Reactions of cobalt and iron complexes | 124 | ||
| Reactions involving cobalt complexes | 124 | ||
| Reactions involving iron complexes | 125 | ||
| 3 The chemistry of chromium | 126 | ||
| Introduction | 126 | ||
| Reactions involving chromium(III) complexes | 126 | ||
| Chromate(VI) and dichromate(VI) ions | 127 | ||
| Explanation of redox reactions using Eϴ values | 127 | ||
| Chromium chemistry summary | 129 | ||
| 4 The chemistry of vanadium | 130 | ||
| Redox reactions | 130 | ||
| Explanation using E values | 131 | ||
| Chapter 15.3: Transition metals as catalysts | 132 | ||
| 1 Heterogeneous catalysis | 132 | ||
| Different ways to understand catalysis | 132 | ||
| Transition metals as heterogeneous catalysts | 132 | ||
| The Contact process | 132 | ||
| Catalytic converters | 133 | ||
| 2 Homogeneous catalysis | 134 | ||
| Transition metals as homogeneous catalysts | 134 | ||
| A reaction of the S2O82− ion | 134 | ||
| The oxidation of ethanedioate ions | 135 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 136 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 138 | ||
| Topic 16: Further kinetics | 140 | ||
| Chapter 16.1: Further Kinetics | 140 | ||
| 1 Methods of measuring the rate of reaction | 142 | ||
| Rate equations, rate constants andorders of reaction | 145 | ||
| Rate of reaction | 142 | ||
| Methods of measuring the rate of reaction | 142 | ||
| 2 Rate equations, rate constants and orders of reaction | 145 | ||
| Rate equation | 145 | ||
| 3 Determining orders of reaction | 148 | ||
| How can we determine the rate equation? | 148 | ||
| 4 Rate equations and mechanisms | 153 | ||
| Reaction mechanisms | 153 | ||
| Alkaline hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes | 154 | ||
| 5 Activation energy and catalysis | 157 | ||
| Activation energy, Ea | 157 | ||
| Catalysts | 157 | ||
| 6 The effect of temperature on the rate constant | 160 | ||
| The relationship between temperature and rate of reaction | 160 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 164 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 166 | ||
| Topic 17: Further organic chemistry | 168 | ||
| Chapter 17.1: Chirality | 168 | ||
| 1 Chirality and enantiomers | 170 | ||
| Different types of isomerism | 170 | ||
| Optical isomerism | 170 | ||
| 2 Optical activity | 172 | ||
| Plane-polarised light | 172 | ||
| Properties of enantiomers | 173 | ||
| 3 Optical activity and reaction mechanisms | 174 | ||
| Nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes | 174 | ||
| The SN2 mechanism | 174 | ||
| The SN1 mechanism | 175 | ||
| Which mechanism? | 175 | ||
| Chapter 17.2 Carbonyl compounds | 176 | ||
| 1 Carbonyl compounds and their physical properties | 176 | ||
| Nomenclature | 176 | ||
| Bonding | 176 | ||
| Physical properties | 176 | ||
| 2 Redox reactions of carbonyl compounds | 178 | ||
| Which reactions occur? | 178 | ||
| Reduction reactions | 178 | ||
| Oxidation reactions | 178 | ||
| Reactions with iodine | 179 | ||
| 3 Nucleophilic addition reactions | 180 | ||
| The reaction with hydrogen cyanide | 180 | ||
| The reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine | 180 | ||
| Chapter 17.3: Carboxylic acids | 182 | ||
| 1 Carboxylic acids and their physical\rproperties | 182 | ||
| Nomenclature | 182 | ||
| Bonding | 182 | ||
| Physical properties | 183 | ||
| 2 Preparations and reactions of carboxylic acids | 184 | ||
| Preparation by oxidation | 184 | ||
| Preparation by hydrolysis | 184 | ||
| Introduction to reactions | 184 | ||
| 3 Acyl chlorides | 186 | ||
| What are acyl chlorides? | 186 | ||
| Reactions of acyl chlorides | 186 | ||
| 4 Esters | 188 | ||
| Introduction | 188 | ||
| Hydrolysis of esters | 188 | ||
| 5 Polyesters | 190 | ||
| Addition polymerisation | 190 | ||
| Condensation polymerisation | 190 | ||
| Chapter 17.4: Arenes - benzene | 192 | ||
| 1 Benzene – a molecule with two models | 192 | ||
| What are aromatic compounds? | 192 | ||
| Benzene | 192 | ||
| Problems with the Kekulé structure | 193 | ||
| A new model for benzene | 194 | ||
| 2 Some reactions of benzene | 196 | ||
| Reactions as a hydrocarbon | 196 | ||
| Reactions as an arene | 196 | ||
| Naming aromatic compounds | 197 | ||
| 3 Electrophilic substitution mechanisms | 198 | ||
| Electrophilic substitution | 198 | ||
| 4 Phenol | 200 | ||
| What is phenol? | 200 | ||
| Bromination of phenol | 200 | ||
| Uses of phenol and its derivatives | 201 | ||
| Chapter 17.5: Amines, amides, amino acids and proteins | 202 | ||
| 1 Amines and their preparations | 202 | ||
| Introduction to amines | 202 | ||
| Preparation of aliphatic amines | 202 | ||
| Preparation of aromatic amines | 203 | ||
| 2 Acid–base reactions of amines | 204 | ||
| Reactions with water | 204 | ||
| Reactions with acids | 205 | ||
| 3 Other reactions of amines | 206 | ||
| Reactions with ethanoyl chloride | 206 | ||
| Reactions with halogenoalkanes | 206 | ||
| Reactions with copper(II) ions | 207 | ||
| 4 Amides and polyamides | 208 | ||
| Amides | 208 | ||
| Polyamides | 208 | ||
| 5 Amino acids | 210 | ||
| What are amino acids? | 210 | ||
| Acidic and basic properties | 211 | ||
| Optical activity | 211 | ||
| 6 Peptides and proteins | 212 | ||
| What is a peptide? | 212 | ||
| Analysing proteins | 213 | ||
| Chapter 17.6: Organic structures | 215 | ||
| 1 Principles of organic synthesis | 215 | ||
| What is organic synthesis? | 215 | ||
| Extending a carbon chain | 215 | ||
| Examples of Grignard reactions | 216 | ||
| 2 Hazards, risks and control measures | 218 | ||
| Safety in chemistry laboratories | 218 | ||
| Hazards, risks and control measures | 218 | ||
| 3 Practical techniques in organic chemistry – Part 1 | 220 | ||
| Different practical techniques | 220 | ||
| Methods of separation | 220 | ||
| 4 Practical techniques in organic chemistry – Part 2 | 222 | ||
| More methods of separation | 222 | ||
| Testing for purity | 223 | ||
| 5 Simple chromatography | 224 | ||
| Paper chromatography | 224 | ||
| Thin layer chromatography | 225 | ||
| Calculating Rf values | 225 | ||
| Column chromatography | 225 | ||
| Chapter 17.7: Organic analysis | 226 | ||
| 1 Traditional methods of analysis | 226 | ||
| Introduction | 226 | ||
| Determining empirical and molecular formulae | 226 | ||
| Determining structural formulae | 227 | ||
| 2 Determining structures using mass spectra | 228 | ||
| Mass spectrometry so far | 228 | ||
| High resolution mass spectrometry | 228 | ||
| Calculating the accurate relative molecular mass | 228 | ||
| 3 Chromatography – HPLC and GC | 230 | ||
| High performance liquid chromatography | 230 | ||
| Gas chromatography | 230 | ||
| 4 Chromatography and mass spectrometry | 232 | ||
| Limitations of HPLC and GC | 232 | ||
| Problems with drug testing | 233 | ||
| 5 Principles of NMR spectroscopy | 234 | ||
| What is NMR? | 234 | ||
| Key aspects of NMR | 234 | ||
| 6 13C NMR spectroscopy | 236 | ||
| What does a 13C NMR spectrum show? | 236 | ||
| Interpreting chemical shifts | 237 | ||
| Practice makes perfect! | 237 | ||
| 7 1H NMR spectroscopy | 240 | ||
| Low resolution 1H NMR spectroscopy | 240 | ||
| What does a low resolution 1H NMR spectrum show? | 240 | ||
| Interpreting chemical shifts | 240 | ||
| 8 Splitting patterns in 1H NMR spectroscopy | 243 | ||
| High resolution 1H NMR spectroscopy | 243 | ||
| Practice makes perfect – again! | 244 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 246 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 248 | ||
| Maths skills | 250 | ||
| Using logarithms | 250 | ||
| Graphs | 251 | ||
| Applying your skills | 252 | ||
| Preparing for your exams | 254 | ||
| Glossary | 261 | ||
| Periodic Table | 263 | ||
| Index | 264 |