Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
A student resource that supports readers through the transition from GCSE to Further Education. It integrates 'How Science Works' throughout to help students understand the underlying principles of science. It includes worked examples and exam-style questions that demonstrate how to approach complex questions.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Module 1: Practical skills in chemistry | 8 | ||
| Chapter 1.1: Practical skills assessed in a written examination | 8 | ||
| 1.1.1 Experimental design | 10 | ||
| Types of research | 10 | ||
| Types of data | 11 | ||
| Choosing equipment | 11 | ||
| 1.1.2 Types of variable | 12 | ||
| What are variables? | 12 | ||
| Units of measurement | 13 | ||
| 1.1.3 Writing a plan | 14 | ||
| What to include in a plan | 14 | ||
| The method | 14 | ||
| 1.1.4 Planning an investigation | 16 | ||
| Designing an experiment: first steps | 16 | ||
| Adding the detail | 17 | ||
| Hypothesis | 17 | ||
| 1.1.5 Recording data | 18 | ||
| Observing variables | 18 | ||
| Presenting observations and data | 18 | ||
| 1.1.6 Manipulating data | 20 | ||
| Standard form | 20 | ||
| Significant figures | 20 | ||
| Scatter graphs | 21 | ||
| Averages | 21 | ||
| 1.1.7 Evaluating results and drawing conclusions | 22 | ||
| Evaluating results | 22 | ||
| Drawing conclusions consistent with results | 22 | ||
| Limitations in experimental procedures | 23 | ||
| 1.1.8 Precision and accuracy | 24 | ||
| Accuracy and uncertainty | 24 | ||
| Measurements and data | 24 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Assessing a practical write up | 26 | ||
| Practice questions | 28 | ||
| Module 2: Foundations in chemistry | 30 | ||
| Chapter 2.1: Atoms and reactions | 30 | ||
| 2.1.1 The changing atom | 32 | ||
| Fifth century BCE (Before the Common Era)- the Greek atom | 32 | ||
| Early 1800s - Dalton’s atomic theory | 32 | ||
| 1897-1906 - Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson discovers electrons | 32 | ||
| 1909-11 - Ernest Rutherford’s gold-leafexperiment | 32 | ||
| 1913 - Niels Bohr’s planetary model and Henry Moseley’s work on atomic numbers | 33 | ||
| 1918 - Rutherford discovers the proton | 33 | ||
| 1923-26 - wave and particle behaviour | 33 | ||
| 1932 - James Chadwick discovers the neutron | 33 | ||
| Modern day | 33 | ||
| 2.1.2 Atomic structure | 34 | ||
| Protons, neutrons and electrons | 34 | ||
| Isotopes | 34 | ||
| Atomic structure of ions | 35 | ||
| 2.1.3 Atomic masses | 36 | ||
| Measurement of relative masses | 36 | ||
| Relative isotopic mass | 36 | ||
| Relative atomic mass, Ar | 36 | ||
| Relative molecular mass, Mr | 36 | ||
| Relative formula mass | 37 | ||
| 2.1.4 Determining masses using mass spectrometry | 38 | ||
| What is mass spectrometry? | 38 | ||
| Determining relative isotopic mass and abundance | 38 | ||
| Determining relative atomic mass | 39 | ||
| 2.1.5 Ions and the periodic table | 40 | ||
| Predicting ionic charge | 40 | ||
| Molecular ions | 41 | ||
| Predicting ionic formulae | 41 | ||
| 2.1.6 Amount of substance and the mole | 42 | ||
| Amount of substance | 42 | ||
| Counting and weighing atoms | 42 | ||
| Moles of anything! | 43 | ||
| How big is a mole? | 43 | ||
| Molar mass | 43 | ||
| 2.1.7 Types of formulae | 44 | ||
| What is an empirical formula? | 44 | ||
| Calculating empirical formulae | 44 | ||
| What is a molecular formula? | 45 | ||
| Calculating molecular formulae | 45 | ||
| 2.1.8 Moles and gas volumes | 46 | ||
| Avogadro's hypothesis | 46 | ||
| The ideal gas equation | 47 | ||
| 2.1.9 Moles and solutions | 48 | ||
| Concentration | 48 | ||
| Standard solutions | 48 | ||
| Concentrated and dilute solutions | 49 | ||
| Molar solutions | 49 | ||
| 2.1.10 Chemical equations | 50 | ||
| Reactants and products | 50 | ||
| Species in equations | 50 | ||
| State symbols in equations | 51 | ||
| 2.1.11 Moles and reactions | 52 | ||
| Stoichiometry and reacting quantities | 52 | ||
| Worked examples using stoichiometry | 52 | ||
| 2.1.12 Percentage yields | 54 | ||
| Percentage yield | 54 | ||
| 2.1.13 Atom economy | 56 | ||
| Atom economy | 56 | ||
| Calculating atom economy | 56 | ||
| Atom economy and type of reaction | 57 | ||
| 2.1.14 Acids and bases | 58 | ||
| Acids | 58 | ||
| Bases | 58 | ||
| Alkalis | 59 | ||
| 2.1.15 Salts | 60 | ||
| Salts | 60 | ||
| Formation of salts | 60 | ||
| Ammonium salts | 61 | ||
| 2.1.16 Formulae for crystals and salts | 62 | ||
| Hydrated crystals | 62 | ||
| Dot formulae | 62 | ||
| Determining the formula of a hydrated salt | 62 | ||
| 2.1.17 Titrations | 64 | ||
| Acid-base titrations | 64 | ||
| Calculating unknowns from titration results | 65 | ||
| 2.1.18 Oxidation numbers | 66 | ||
| Oxidation numbers | 66 | ||
| Oxidation numbers in formulae | 66 | ||
| Oxidation numbers in chemical names | 67 | ||
| 2.1.19 Redox reactions | 68 | ||
| Oxidation and reduction | 68 | ||
| Electron transfer in redox reactions | 68 | ||
| Oxidation numbers in redox reactions | 68 | ||
| Redox reactions of metals with acids | 68 | ||
| Using oxidation numbers with equations | 69 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Elemental fingerprints | 70 | ||
| Practice questions | 72 | ||
| Chapter 2.2: Electrons, bonding and structure | 74 | ||
| 2.2.1 Shells and orbitals | 76 | ||
| Energy levels or shells | 76 | ||
| Atomic orbitals | 76 | ||
| Representing electrons in orbitals | 77 | ||
| 2.2.2 Sub-shells and energy levels | 78 | ||
| Sub-shells | 78 | ||
| Electron energy levels | 78 | ||
| Filling shells and sub-shells | 79 | ||
| Filling the orbitals | 79 | ||
| Electron confi guration | 79 | ||
| 2.2.3 An introduction to chemical bonding | 80 | ||
| Why do elements react and bond together? | 80 | ||
| Types of chemical bonding | 80 | ||
| 2.2.4 Ionic bonding | 82 | ||
| Ionic bonds | 82 | ||
| Giant ionic lattices | 83 | ||
| Other examples of ionic bonding | 83 | ||
| 2.2.5 Structures of ionic compounds | 84 | ||
| Giant ionic lattices | 84 | ||
| Properties of ionic compounds | 84 | ||
| 2.2.6 Covalent bonding | 86 | ||
| Covalent bonds | 86 | ||
| Dot-and-cross diagrams | 86 | ||
| Single covalent bonding | 86 | ||
| Multiple covalent bonding | 87 | ||
| Average bond enthalpy | 87 | ||
| 2.2.7 Dative covalent bonding | 88 | ||
| Dative covalent bonding | 88 | ||
| How many covalent bonds can be formed? | 89 | ||
| Modifying the Octet Rule | 89 | ||
| 2.2.8 Structures of covalent compounds | 90 | ||
| Types of covalent structure | 90 | ||
| Simple molecular structures | 90 | ||
| Properties of simple molecular structures | 90 | ||
| Giant covalent structures | 91 | ||
| Properties of giant covalent structures | 91 | ||
| 2.2.9 Shapes of molecules and ions | 92 | ||
| Electron pair repulsion theory | 92 | ||
| Molecules surrounded by bonded pairs or bonding regions | 92 | ||
| Molecules with lone pairs | 93 | ||
| Shapes of ions | 93 | ||
| 2.2.10 Electronegativity and bond polarity | 94 | ||
| What is electronegativity and how is it measured? | 94 | ||
| Polar and non-polar bonds | 94 | ||
| Polar and non-polar molecules | 95 | ||
| 2.2.11 Intermolecular forces | 96 | ||
| What are intermolecular forces? | 96 | ||
| Van der Waals’ forces | 96 | ||
| 2.2.12 Hydrogen bonding | 98 | ||
| Hydrogen bonding | 98 | ||
| The effect of hydrogen bonding on the properties of water | 98 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Boring boron? | 100 | ||
| Practice questions | 102 | ||
| Module 3: The periodic table and energy | 104 | ||
| Chapter 3.1: The periodic table | 104 | ||
| 3.1.1 The development of the periodic table | 106 | ||
| Before the periodic table | 106 | ||
| Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier | 106 | ||
| Jöns Jakob Berzelius | 106 | ||
| Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner | 106 | ||
| John Newlands | 106 | ||
| Dmitri Mendeleev | 106 | ||
| Henry Moseley and Glenn Seaborg | 107 | ||
| 3.1.2 The modern periodic table | 108 | ||
| Arranging the elements | 108 | ||
| Periodicity | 108 | ||
| Variation in electron structure | 109 | ||
| 3.1.3 Electrons and the periodic table | 110 | ||
| Electron shells overlap | 110 | ||
| Sub-shells and the periodic table | 111 | ||
| 3.1.4 Evidence for electron shells | 112 | ||
| What is ionisation? | 112 | ||
| Ionisation energy | 112 | ||
| Factors affecting ionisation energy | 112 | ||
| Successive ionisation energies | 112 | ||
| 3.1.5 Periodicity: ionisation energies and atomic radii | 114 | ||
| Variation in first ionisation energies and atomic radii | 114 | ||
| 3.1.6 Metallic bonding and structure | 116 | ||
| Introduction | 116 | ||
| Properties of giant metallic lattices | 116 | ||
| 3.1.7 Periodicity: melting points | 118 | ||
| From metals to non-metals | 118 | ||
| Trends in melting points | 118 | ||
| Structure and bonding | 119 | ||
| 3.1.8 Group 2 elements: redox reactions | 120 | ||
| The group 2 elements | 120 | ||
| Electronic configuration and ionisation energy | 120 | ||
| Reactivity of the group 2 elements | 121 | ||
| 3.1.9 Group 2 compounds: reactions | 122 | ||
| Reactions between group 2 oxides and water | 122 | ||
| Uses of group 2 compounds | 122 | ||
| 3.1.10 Group 17: the halogens | 124 | ||
| Properties of the halogens | 124 | ||
| Reactivity of the halogens | 124 | ||
| Disproportionation | 125 | ||
| 3.1.11 Testing for ions | 126 | ||
| Testing unknown solutions | 126 | ||
| Identifying anions | 126 | ||
| Identifying cations | 127 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Nuts about selenium | 128 | ||
| Practice questions | 130 | ||
| Chapter 3.2: Physical chemistry | 132 | ||
| 3.2.1 Enthalpy and reactions | 134 | ||
| What is chemical energy? | 134 | ||
| Enthalpy | 134 | ||
| Exothermic reactions | 135 | ||
| Endothermic reactions | 135 | ||
| 3.2.2 Enthalpy profile diagrams | 136 | ||
| Simple enthalpy profile diagrams | 136 | ||
| Activation energy | 136 | ||
| 3.2.3 Enthalpy terms | 138 | ||
| Thermodynamics | 138 | ||
| 3.2.4 Calorimetry | 140 | ||
| Determination of enthalpy changes | 140 | ||
| Direct measurement of enthalpy of a reaction | 140 | ||
| Direct measurement of enthalpy of combustion | 141 | ||
| 3.2.5 Bond enthalpies | 142 | ||
| Bond enthalpy | 142 | ||
| Breaking and making bonds | 142 | ||
| Using average bond enthalpy data to predict enthalpy change | 142 | ||
| 3.2.6 Hess' law and enthalpy cycles | 144 | ||
| Measuring enthalpy changes indirectly | 144 | ||
| 3.2.7 Collision theory and rates of reaction | 146 | ||
| Rate of reaction | 146 | ||
| Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction | 146 | ||
| Calculating the rate of a reaction | 147 | ||
| 3.2.8 Catalysts | 148 | ||
| What is a catalyst? | 148 | ||
| Types of catalysts | 148 | ||
| The economic importance of catalysts | 149 | ||
| 3.2.9 The Boltzmann distribution | 150 | ||
| What is the Boltzmann distribution? | 150 | ||
| The effect of temperature on reaction rate | 150 | ||
| The effect of a catalyst on reaction rate | 151 | ||
| 3.2.10 Chemical equilibrium | 152 | ||
| Reversible reactions | 152 | ||
| Dynamic equilibrium | 152 | ||
| Factors affecting the position of equilibrium | 152 | ||
| 3.2.11 Equilibrium and industry | 154 | ||
| The effect of temperature on equilibrium | 154 | ||
| The effect of a catalyst on equilibrium | 154 | ||
| Equilibrium vs yield | 154 | ||
| 3.2.12 The equilibrium constant, Kc | 156 | ||
| Equilibrium concentrations | 156 | ||
| The equilibrium constant, Kc , and the equilibrium law | 156 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Which fuel and why? | 158 | ||
| Practice questions | 160 | ||
| Module 4: Core organic chemistry | 162 | ||
| Chapter 4.1: Basic concepts and hydrocarbons | 162 | ||
| 4.1.1 Naming organic chemicals | 164 | ||
| Homologous series | 164 | ||
| Functional groups | 166 | ||
| 4.1.2 Organic compounds and their formulae | 168 | ||
| General formula | 168 | ||
| Displayed formula | 168 | ||
| Structural formula | 169 | ||
| Empirical formula | 169 | ||
| Molecular formula | 169 | ||
| 4.1.3 Skeletal formulae | 170 | ||
| Selecting the best type of formula for the context | 170 | ||
| Skeletal formulae | 170 | ||
| 4.1.4 Isomerism | 172 | ||
| What are isomers? | 172 | ||
| Structural isomers | 172 | ||
| Stereoisomerism | 172 | ||
| E/Z isomerism | 173 | ||
| Cis-trans isomerism | 173 | ||
| 4.1.5 Reaction mechanisms | 174 | ||
| Introduction | 174 | ||
| Covalent bond fission | 174 | ||
| Covalent bond formation | 175 | ||
| 4.1.6 Properties of alkanes | 176 | ||
| Introduction | 176 | ||
| Bonding in alkanes | 176 | ||
| Boiling points of alkanes | 177 | ||
| 4.1.7 Reactions of alkanes | 178 | ||
| Reactivity of alkanes | 178 | ||
| Combustion | 178 | ||
| Radical substitution | 179 | ||
| 4.1.8 Properties of alkenes | 180 | ||
| Introduction | 180 | ||
| Bonding in alkenes | 180 | ||
| Stereoisomerism | 181 | ||
| 4.1.9 Addition reactions of alkenes | 182 | ||
| Reactivity of alkenes | 182 | ||
| Understanding electrophilic addition reactions | 182 | ||
| 4.1.10 Addition polymerisation | 186 | ||
| Introduction | 186 | ||
| Common addition polymers | 186 | ||
| 4.1.11 Polymers - dealing with polymer waste | 188 | ||
| Introduction | 188 | ||
| Polymer waste | 188 | ||
| Biodegradable and photodegradable polymers | 190 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Towards a greener environment | 192 | ||
| Practice questions | 194 | ||
| Chapter 4.2: Alcohols, haloalkanes and analysis | 196 | ||
| 4.2.1 Properties of alcohols | 198 | ||
| Introduction | 198 | ||
| Classifying alcohols | 198 | ||
| Changing state | 198 | ||
| Solubility | 199 | ||
| 4.2.2 Oxidation of alcohols | 200 | ||
| Combustion | 200 | ||
| Overview of oxidation | 200 | ||
| 4.2.3 Other reactions of alcohols | 202 | ||
| Esterification | 202 | ||
| Dehydration | 203 | ||
| Halide substitution | 203 | ||
| 4.2.4 Haloalkanes | 205 | ||
| What are haloalkanes? | 205 | ||
| Reactivity | 205 | ||
| Nucleophilic substitution | 206 | ||
| 4.2.5 Haloalkanes and the environment | 208 | ||
| Chlorofluorocarbons | 208 | ||
| Other radicals and ozone | 209 | ||
| 4.2.6 Practical skills for organic synthesis | 210 | ||
| Quickfit apparatus | 210 | ||
| Preparing and purifying an organic liquid | 212 | ||
| 4.2.7 Synthetic routes in organic synthesis | 214 | ||
| Laboratory tests for functional groups | 214 | ||
| More than one functional group | 214 | ||
| Synthetic routes | 215 | ||
| 4.2.8 Infrared spectroscopy | 216 | ||
| Infrared radiation and molecules | 216 | ||
| What does an infrared spectrum look like? | 217 | ||
| 4.2.9 Infrared spectroscopy: functional groups | 218 | ||
| Identifying functional groups | 218 | ||
| 4.2.10 Mass spectrometry in organic chemistry | 220 | ||
| Mass spectrometry and molecules | 220 | ||
| Determining molecular mass | 220 | ||
| Fragmentation patterns | 221 | ||
| 4.2.11 Mass spectrometry: fragmentation patterns | 222 | ||
| Identifying fragment ions | 222 | ||
| Identification of organic structures | 222 | ||
| 4.2.12 Combined techniques | 224 | ||
| Elemental analysis | 224 | ||
| Mass spectra | 224 | ||
| IR spectra | 225 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Identifying steroids | 226 | ||
| Practice questions | 228 | ||
| Maths skills | 230 | ||
| Arithmetic and numerical computation | 230 | ||
| Algebra | 231 | ||
| Handling data | 231 | ||
| Applying your skills | 232 | ||
| Preparing for your exams | 234 | ||
| Glossary | 240 | ||
| Periodic table | 245 | ||
| Index | 246 |