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OCR A level Physics A Student Book 2

OCR A level Physics A Student Book 2

Mike O'Neill

(2016)

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Abstract

OCR A level Physics A Student Book 2

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Contents 4
How to use this book 6
Module 5: Newtonian world and astrophysics 8
Chapter 5.1: Thermal physics 8
5.1.1 Temperature 10
Temperature 10
5.1.2 Solids, liquids and gases 12
Kinetic model of matter 12
Density 12
Atomic or molecular spacing 13
Change of phase 13
5.1.3 Internal energy 14
Internal energies for solids and liquids 14
Internal energy for a gas 15
5.1.4 Brownian motion 16
Brownian motion 16
Pattern of movement in solids, liquids and gases compared 17
5.1.5 Specific heat capacity 18
Specific heat capacity 18
Calculating energy changes 18
5.1.6 Specific latent heat 21
Changing phase 21
Specific latent heat of fusion 21
Specific latent heat of vaporisation 22
5.1.7 The amount of substance 24
Moles 24
The relationship between Avogadro’s number ( NA ), the number of moles ( n ) and the number of particles ( N ) 25
5.1.8 The kinetic theory and pressure of a gas 26
Kinetic theory 26
Assumptions of the kinetic model of a gas 26
Pressure of gases 26
5.1.9 Investigating gases 29
Boyle’s law 29
The pressure-temperature law 30
5.1.10 The ideal gas equation 31
The ideal gas equation 31
5.1.11 The Boltzmann constant 33
The Boltzmann constant 33
Thinking Bigger: Hot memory 36
Practice questions 38
Chapter 5.2: Circular motion 40
5.2.1 Kinematics of circular motion 42
Angular measure 42
Circular motion 43
Centripetal acceleration 44
5.2.2 Centripetal force 46
Circular motion and Newton’s laws 46
The conical pendulum 47
Motion in a vertical circle 48
Thinking Bigger: Astronauts in a spin 50
Practice questions 52
Chapter 5.3: Oscillations 54
5.3.1 Simple harmonic motion 56
Oscillations 56
The terms used to describe oscillations 56
The motion of an oscillating mass on a spring 57
5.3.2 The equations of simple harmonic motion 58
Introduction 58
Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion 58
The solutions to the equation a = -ω2x 59
5.3.3 Graphical analysis of simple harmonic motion 60
Graphs of simple harmonic motion 60
Analysis of the graphs of simple harmonic motion 61
5.3.4 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator 64
Energy interchanges during simple harmonic motion 64
Energy changes for a mass on a spring 65
5.3.5 Damping 66
Introduction 66
Uses of damping 66
Effects of damping 66
5.3.6 Resonance 68
Forced oscillations 68
Practical uses and dangers of resonance 70
Thinking Bigger: A bridge too far 72
Practice questions 74
Chapter 5.4: Gravitational fields 76
5.4.1 Gravitational fields 78
Introduction 78
Gravitational field 78
Calculating gravitational field strength 79
5.4.2 Newton’s law of gravitation 81
Introduction 81
Gravitational field strength, g 82
5.4.3 The motion of planets and satellites 84
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion 84
Gravitation and orbits 85
Geostationary satellites 86
5.4.4 Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy 87
Gravitational potential 87
Gravitational potential energy 88
Force-distance graph for a point orspherical mass 88
Escape velocity 88
Thinking Bigger: Measuring gravity 90
Practice questions 92
Chapter 5.5: Astrophysics and cosmology 94
5.5.1 The structure of the universe 96
The components of the universe 96
5.5.2 Star formation and life cycle 98
The formation of a star 98
Development of stars 99
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 101
5.5.3 Electromagnetic radiation from stars 102
The spectrum of the Sun 102
Energy levels in atoms and the production of spectra 102
Emission spectra 103
Absorption spectra from the Sun and other stars 104
Transmission diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light 104
5.5.4 Wien’s law and Stefan’s law 106
The colour-temperature relationship 106
Luminosity, surface temperature and surface area 107
5.5.5 Astronomical distances 109
Introduction 109
The astronomical unit of distance (AU) 109
The parsec (pc) 109
The light-year (ly) 110
5.5.6 The Doppler effect and red shift 112
The Doppler effect 112
Spectral lines and red shift 113
Hubble's law 113
5.5.7 The microwave background and the cosmological principle 115
Cosmic microwave background radiation 115
The cosmological principle 116
5.5.8 The evolution and expansion of the universe 118
Evidence for the expanding universe 118
Timeline of the universe 118
Implications of a Big Bang 119
5.5.9 Dark matter and dark energy 120
The eventual fate of the universe 120
Dark matter 121
Dark energy 123
Thinking Bigger: White holes 124
Practice questions 126
Module 6: Particles and medical physics 128
Chapter 6.1: Capacitors 128
6.1.1 Capacitors 130
Energy transfer and energy storage 130
Charge separation on a capacitor 130
Capacitance 131
6.1.2 Capacitors in series and parallel 132
Capacitors in parallel 132
Capacitors in series 132
6.1.3 Energy stored in a capacitor 134
Energy transfer and work done 134
Releasing stored energy 135
Uses of capacitors for the storage of energy 136
6.1.4 Charging and discharging capacitors 137
Charge and discharge graphs 137
A capacitor-resistor circuit 138
Exponential changes 139
6.1.5 Graphical and spreadsheet methods 141
Determining the time constant graphically 141
Modelling capacitor discharge 142
Thinking Bigger: Storage wars 144
Practice questions 146
Chapter 6.2: Electric fields 148
6.2.1 Electric fields 150
Force fields and action at a distance 150
Electric field strength 150
Electric field line patterns 150
6.2.2 Coulomb’s law 152
Force between two point charges 152
Electric field strength for a radial field 153
Comparing gravitational and electric fields 154
6.2.3 Uniform electric fields 155
Comparing uniform and non-uniform fi elds 155
Charged parallel plates 155
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field 156
The parallel plate capacitor 157
6.2.4 Electric potential and electric potential energy 159
Electric potential 159
The capacitance of an isolated sphere 160
Electric potential energy 160
Thinking Bigger: Coral architecture 162
Practice questions 164
Chapter 6.3: Electromagnetism 166
6.3.1 Magnetic fields 168
Magnetic fields and field lines 168
Magnetic fi eld associated with an electric current 168
The magnetic field associated with the Earth 169
6.3.2 Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density 170
Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density 170
6.3.3 Forces on a current-carrying wire 172
The motor effect 172
Fleming's left-hand rule 173
Size of the force acting on a current-carrying wire 174
6.3.4 Motion of charged particles in magnetic and electric fields 176
Force on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field 176
Charged particles moving in both electric and magnetic fields 178
6.3.5 Electromagnetic induction 179
Faraday’s experiments 179
Explaining Faraday’s experiments in terms of magnetic flux 180
6.3.6 Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law 182
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction 182
Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction 182
6.3.7 The a.c. generator 185
Generating electricity 185
The structure of the a.c. generator 185
The operation of the a.c. generator 186
6.3.8 Transformers 188
Transformer structure 188
Why transformers are necessary 188
The operation of a transformer 190
The efficiency of a transformer 191
Thinking Bigger: Developments in wireless charging 192
Practice questions 194
Chapter 6.4: Nuclear and particle physics 196
6.4.1 The nuclear atom 198
Early models of the atom 198
The alpha particle scattering experiment 198
Nuclear model of the atom 200
Proton number, nucleon number and isotopes 200
6.4.2 The strong nuclear force 201
Forces between nucleons 201
The properties of the strong nuclear force 201
Equilibrium separation of nuclear particles 202
6.4.3 Nuclear density 203
Relative size and mass of atom and nucleus 203
Nuclear radius 203
Nuclear density 203
6.4.4 Fundamental particles 205
In search of particles 205
The classification of particles 205
Antiparticles 206
Properties of quarks 206
6.4.5 Radioactivity 208
Radioactive decay 208
Nature of α, β and ϒ radiation 208
6.4.6 Radioactive decay 210
Nuclear decay equations 210
α decay 210
β\x1D-minus decay 211
β\x1D-plus decay 211
β-minus decay - quark transformation 211
β-plus decay - quark transformation 211
Gamma rays 211
Stable and unstable nuclei 212
6.4.7 Radioactive decay equations and half-life 213
Activity of a radioactive source 213
Decay equations 213
Graphs of radioactive decay 214
Half-life 214
Using a spreadsheet to model radioactive decay 216
6.4.8 Radioactive dating 217
Carbon dating 217
Dating rocks 217
6.4.9 Mass-energy conservation 218
Radioactive decay 218
Einstein’s mass-energy equation 218
Annihilation reactions 218
Mass defect 218
Binding energy and mass defect 219
Binding energy per nucleon 219
6.4.10 Nuclear fission 220
Induced fission 220
A chain reaction 220
Components of a fission reactor 221
Environmental impact of nuclear waste 222
6.4.11 Nuclear fusion 223
Nuclear fusion and binding energy 223
Fusion reactions in stars 223
Fusion power on Earth 224
Thinking Bigger: Finding neutrinos 226
Practice questions 228
Chapter 6.5: Medical imaging 230
6.5.1 X-rays 232
Discovery of X-rays 232
The production of X-rays 232
6.5.2 Attenuation of X-rays 234
Interaction of X-rays with matter 234
Intensity attenuation with distance 235
Contrast media 236
6.5.3 Computerised axial tomography (CAT) 237
Drawbacks of 2D X-rays 237
Production of a CAT scan image 237
Advantages of a CAT scan over an X-ray image 238
6.5.4 The gamma camera 239
Radioactive medical tracers 239
The gamma camera 240
The gamma camera in use 241
6.5.5 Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning 242
Tomographic techniques 242
Conducting a PET scan 242
Uses of PET scans 243
Comparing PET scans with CAT scans 243
6.5.6 Ultrasound 244
Ultrasound scanning 244
Ultrasound in diagnosis 244
The principles of ultrasound scanning 245
The ultrasound transducer and the piezoelectric effect 245
6.5.7 Acoustic impedance 247
Different types of ultrasound scanning 247
Acoustic impedance 247
6.5.8 The Doppler effect 250
The Doppler effect for a moving reflector 250
Measurement of blood flow 250
Thinking Bigger: X-rays 252
Practice questions 254
Maths skills 256
Arithmetic and numerical computation 256
Graphs 256
Geometry and trigonometry 258
Applying your skills 258
Preparing for your exams 260
Glossary 270
Index 275