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Abstract
OCR A level Physics A Student Book 2
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Module 5: Newtonian world and astrophysics | 8 | ||
| Chapter 5.1: Thermal physics | 8 | ||
| 5.1.1 Temperature | 10 | ||
| Temperature | 10 | ||
| 5.1.2 Solids, liquids and gases | 12 | ||
| Kinetic model of matter | 12 | ||
| Density | 12 | ||
| Atomic or molecular spacing | 13 | ||
| Change of phase | 13 | ||
| 5.1.3 Internal energy | 14 | ||
| Internal energies for solids and liquids | 14 | ||
| Internal energy for a gas | 15 | ||
| 5.1.4 Brownian motion | 16 | ||
| Brownian motion | 16 | ||
| Pattern of movement in solids, liquids and gases compared | 17 | ||
| 5.1.5 Specific heat capacity | 18 | ||
| Specific heat capacity | 18 | ||
| Calculating energy changes | 18 | ||
| 5.1.6 Specific latent heat | 21 | ||
| Changing phase | 21 | ||
| Specific latent heat of fusion | 21 | ||
| Specific latent heat of vaporisation | 22 | ||
| 5.1.7 The amount of substance | 24 | ||
| Moles | 24 | ||
| The relationship between Avogadro’s number ( NA ), the number of moles ( n ) and the number of particles ( N ) | 25 | ||
| 5.1.8 The kinetic theory and pressure of a gas | 26 | ||
| Kinetic theory | 26 | ||
| Assumptions of the kinetic model of a gas | 26 | ||
| Pressure of gases | 26 | ||
| 5.1.9 Investigating gases | 29 | ||
| Boyle’s law | 29 | ||
| The pressure-temperature law | 30 | ||
| 5.1.10 The ideal gas equation | 31 | ||
| The ideal gas equation | 31 | ||
| 5.1.11 The Boltzmann constant | 33 | ||
| The Boltzmann constant | 33 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Hot memory | 36 | ||
| Practice questions | 38 | ||
| Chapter 5.2: Circular motion | 40 | ||
| 5.2.1 Kinematics of circular motion | 42 | ||
| Angular measure | 42 | ||
| Circular motion | 43 | ||
| Centripetal acceleration | 44 | ||
| 5.2.2 Centripetal force | 46 | ||
| Circular motion and Newton’s laws | 46 | ||
| The conical pendulum | 47 | ||
| Motion in a vertical circle | 48 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Astronauts in a spin | 50 | ||
| Practice questions | 52 | ||
| Chapter 5.3: Oscillations | 54 | ||
| 5.3.1 Simple harmonic motion | 56 | ||
| Oscillations | 56 | ||
| The terms used to describe oscillations | 56 | ||
| The motion of an oscillating mass on a spring | 57 | ||
| 5.3.2 The equations of simple harmonic motion | 58 | ||
| Introduction | 58 | ||
| Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion | 58 | ||
| The solutions to the equation a = -ω2x | 59 | ||
| 5.3.3 Graphical analysis of simple harmonic motion | 60 | ||
| Graphs of simple harmonic motion | 60 | ||
| Analysis of the graphs of simple harmonic motion | 61 | ||
| 5.3.4 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator | 64 | ||
| Energy interchanges during simple harmonic motion | 64 | ||
| Energy changes for a mass on a spring | 65 | ||
| 5.3.5 Damping | 66 | ||
| Introduction | 66 | ||
| Uses of damping | 66 | ||
| Effects of damping | 66 | ||
| 5.3.6 Resonance | 68 | ||
| Forced oscillations | 68 | ||
| Practical uses and dangers of resonance | 70 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: A bridge too far | 72 | ||
| Practice questions | 74 | ||
| Chapter 5.4: Gravitational fields | 76 | ||
| 5.4.1 Gravitational fields | 78 | ||
| Introduction | 78 | ||
| Gravitational field | 78 | ||
| Calculating gravitational field strength | 79 | ||
| 5.4.2 Newton’s law of gravitation | 81 | ||
| Introduction | 81 | ||
| Gravitational field strength, g | 82 | ||
| 5.4.3 The motion of planets and satellites | 84 | ||
| Kepler’s laws of planetary motion | 84 | ||
| Gravitation and orbits | 85 | ||
| Geostationary satellites | 86 | ||
| 5.4.4 Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy | 87 | ||
| Gravitational potential | 87 | ||
| Gravitational potential energy | 88 | ||
| Force-distance graph for a point orspherical mass | 88 | ||
| Escape velocity | 88 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Measuring gravity | 90 | ||
| Practice questions | 92 | ||
| Chapter 5.5: Astrophysics and cosmology | 94 | ||
| 5.5.1 The structure of the universe | 96 | ||
| The components of the universe | 96 | ||
| 5.5.2 Star formation and life cycle | 98 | ||
| The formation of a star | 98 | ||
| Development of stars | 99 | ||
| The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram | 101 | ||
| 5.5.3 Electromagnetic radiation from stars | 102 | ||
| The spectrum of the Sun | 102 | ||
| Energy levels in atoms and the production of spectra | 102 | ||
| Emission spectra | 103 | ||
| Absorption spectra from the Sun and other stars | 104 | ||
| Transmission diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light | 104 | ||
| 5.5.4 Wien’s law and Stefan’s law | 106 | ||
| The colour-temperature relationship | 106 | ||
| Luminosity, surface temperature and surface area | 107 | ||
| 5.5.5 Astronomical distances | 109 | ||
| Introduction | 109 | ||
| The astronomical unit of distance (AU) | 109 | ||
| The parsec (pc) | 109 | ||
| The light-year (ly) | 110 | ||
| 5.5.6 The Doppler effect and red shift | 112 | ||
| The Doppler effect | 112 | ||
| Spectral lines and red shift | 113 | ||
| Hubble's law | 113 | ||
| 5.5.7 The microwave background and the cosmological principle | 115 | ||
| Cosmic microwave background radiation | 115 | ||
| The cosmological principle | 116 | ||
| 5.5.8 The evolution and expansion of the universe | 118 | ||
| Evidence for the expanding universe | 118 | ||
| Timeline of the universe | 118 | ||
| Implications of a Big Bang | 119 | ||
| 5.5.9 Dark matter and dark energy | 120 | ||
| The eventual fate of the universe | 120 | ||
| Dark matter | 121 | ||
| Dark energy | 123 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: White holes | 124 | ||
| Practice questions | 126 | ||
| Module 6: Particles and medical physics | 128 | ||
| Chapter 6.1: Capacitors | 128 | ||
| 6.1.1 Capacitors | 130 | ||
| Energy transfer and energy storage | 130 | ||
| Charge separation on a capacitor | 130 | ||
| Capacitance | 131 | ||
| 6.1.2 Capacitors in series and parallel | 132 | ||
| Capacitors in parallel | 132 | ||
| Capacitors in series | 132 | ||
| 6.1.3 Energy stored in a capacitor | 134 | ||
| Energy transfer and work done | 134 | ||
| Releasing stored energy | 135 | ||
| Uses of capacitors for the storage of energy | 136 | ||
| 6.1.4 Charging and discharging capacitors | 137 | ||
| Charge and discharge graphs | 137 | ||
| A capacitor-resistor circuit | 138 | ||
| Exponential changes | 139 | ||
| 6.1.5 Graphical and spreadsheet methods | 141 | ||
| Determining the time constant graphically | 141 | ||
| Modelling capacitor discharge | 142 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Storage wars | 144 | ||
| Practice questions | 146 | ||
| Chapter 6.2: Electric fields | 148 | ||
| 6.2.1 Electric fields | 150 | ||
| Force fields and action at a distance | 150 | ||
| Electric field strength | 150 | ||
| Electric field line patterns | 150 | ||
| 6.2.2 Coulomb’s law | 152 | ||
| Force between two point charges | 152 | ||
| Electric field strength for a radial field | 153 | ||
| Comparing gravitational and electric fields | 154 | ||
| 6.2.3 Uniform electric fields | 155 | ||
| Comparing uniform and non-uniform fi elds | 155 | ||
| Charged parallel plates | 155 | ||
| Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field | 156 | ||
| The parallel plate capacitor | 157 | ||
| 6.2.4 Electric potential and electric potential energy | 159 | ||
| Electric potential | 159 | ||
| The capacitance of an isolated sphere | 160 | ||
| Electric potential energy | 160 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Coral architecture | 162 | ||
| Practice questions | 164 | ||
| Chapter 6.3: Electromagnetism | 166 | ||
| 6.3.1 Magnetic fields | 168 | ||
| Magnetic fields and field lines | 168 | ||
| Magnetic fi eld associated with an electric current | 168 | ||
| The magnetic field associated with the Earth | 169 | ||
| 6.3.2 Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density | 170 | ||
| Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density | 170 | ||
| 6.3.3 Forces on a current-carrying wire | 172 | ||
| The motor effect | 172 | ||
| Fleming's left-hand rule | 173 | ||
| Size of the force acting on a current-carrying wire | 174 | ||
| 6.3.4 Motion of charged particles in magnetic and electric fields | 176 | ||
| Force on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field | 176 | ||
| Charged particles moving in both electric and magnetic fields | 178 | ||
| 6.3.5 Electromagnetic induction | 179 | ||
| Faraday’s experiments | 179 | ||
| Explaining Faraday’s experiments in terms of magnetic flux | 180 | ||
| 6.3.6 Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law | 182 | ||
| Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction | 182 | ||
| Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction | 182 | ||
| 6.3.7 The a.c. generator | 185 | ||
| Generating electricity | 185 | ||
| The structure of the a.c. generator | 185 | ||
| The operation of the a.c. generator | 186 | ||
| 6.3.8 Transformers | 188 | ||
| Transformer structure | 188 | ||
| Why transformers are necessary | 188 | ||
| The operation of a transformer | 190 | ||
| The efficiency of a transformer | 191 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Developments in wireless charging | 192 | ||
| Practice questions | 194 | ||
| Chapter 6.4: Nuclear and particle physics | 196 | ||
| 6.4.1 The nuclear atom | 198 | ||
| Early models of the atom | 198 | ||
| The alpha particle scattering experiment | 198 | ||
| Nuclear model of the atom | 200 | ||
| Proton number, nucleon number and isotopes | 200 | ||
| 6.4.2 The strong nuclear force | 201 | ||
| Forces between nucleons | 201 | ||
| The properties of the strong nuclear force | 201 | ||
| Equilibrium separation of nuclear particles | 202 | ||
| 6.4.3 Nuclear density | 203 | ||
| Relative size and mass of atom and nucleus | 203 | ||
| Nuclear radius | 203 | ||
| Nuclear density | 203 | ||
| 6.4.4 Fundamental particles | 205 | ||
| In search of particles | 205 | ||
| The classification of particles | 205 | ||
| Antiparticles | 206 | ||
| Properties of quarks | 206 | ||
| 6.4.5 Radioactivity | 208 | ||
| Radioactive decay | 208 | ||
| Nature of α, β and ϒ radiation | 208 | ||
| 6.4.6 Radioactive decay | 210 | ||
| Nuclear decay equations | 210 | ||
| α decay | 210 | ||
| β\x1D-minus decay | 211 | ||
| β\x1D-plus decay | 211 | ||
| β-minus decay - quark transformation | 211 | ||
| β-plus decay - quark transformation | 211 | ||
| Gamma rays | 211 | ||
| Stable and unstable nuclei | 212 | ||
| 6.4.7 Radioactive decay equations and half-life | 213 | ||
| Activity of a radioactive source | 213 | ||
| Decay equations | 213 | ||
| Graphs of radioactive decay | 214 | ||
| Half-life | 214 | ||
| Using a spreadsheet to model radioactive decay | 216 | ||
| 6.4.8 Radioactive dating | 217 | ||
| Carbon dating | 217 | ||
| Dating rocks | 217 | ||
| 6.4.9 Mass-energy conservation | 218 | ||
| Radioactive decay | 218 | ||
| Einstein’s mass-energy equation | 218 | ||
| Annihilation reactions | 218 | ||
| Mass defect | 218 | ||
| Binding energy and mass defect | 219 | ||
| Binding energy per nucleon | 219 | ||
| 6.4.10 Nuclear fission | 220 | ||
| Induced fission | 220 | ||
| A chain reaction | 220 | ||
| Components of a fission reactor | 221 | ||
| Environmental impact of nuclear waste | 222 | ||
| 6.4.11 Nuclear fusion | 223 | ||
| Nuclear fusion and binding energy | 223 | ||
| Fusion reactions in stars | 223 | ||
| Fusion power on Earth | 224 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Finding neutrinos | 226 | ||
| Practice questions | 228 | ||
| Chapter 6.5: Medical imaging | 230 | ||
| 6.5.1 X-rays | 232 | ||
| Discovery of X-rays | 232 | ||
| The production of X-rays | 232 | ||
| 6.5.2 Attenuation of X-rays | 234 | ||
| Interaction of X-rays with matter | 234 | ||
| Intensity attenuation with distance | 235 | ||
| Contrast media | 236 | ||
| 6.5.3 Computerised axial tomography (CAT) | 237 | ||
| Drawbacks of 2D X-rays | 237 | ||
| Production of a CAT scan image | 237 | ||
| Advantages of a CAT scan over an X-ray image | 238 | ||
| 6.5.4 The gamma camera | 239 | ||
| Radioactive medical tracers | 239 | ||
| The gamma camera | 240 | ||
| The gamma camera in use | 241 | ||
| 6.5.5 Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning | 242 | ||
| Tomographic techniques | 242 | ||
| Conducting a PET scan | 242 | ||
| Uses of PET scans | 243 | ||
| Comparing PET scans with CAT scans | 243 | ||
| 6.5.6 Ultrasound | 244 | ||
| Ultrasound scanning | 244 | ||
| Ultrasound in diagnosis | 244 | ||
| The principles of ultrasound scanning | 245 | ||
| The ultrasound transducer and the piezoelectric effect | 245 | ||
| 6.5.7 Acoustic impedance | 247 | ||
| Different types of ultrasound scanning | 247 | ||
| Acoustic impedance | 247 | ||
| 6.5.8 The Doppler effect | 250 | ||
| The Doppler effect for a moving reflector | 250 | ||
| Measurement of blood flow | 250 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: X-rays | 252 | ||
| Practice questions | 254 | ||
| Maths skills | 256 | ||
| Arithmetic and numerical computation | 256 | ||
| Graphs | 256 | ||
| Geometry and trigonometry | 258 | ||
| Applying your skills | 258 | ||
| Preparing for your exams | 260 | ||
| Glossary | 270 | ||
| Index | 275 |