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Abstract
OCR A level Chemistry A Student Book 2
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Module 5: Physical chemistry and transition elements | 8 | ||
| Chapter 5.1: Rates, equilibrium and pH | 8 | ||
| 5.1.1 Orders, rate equations and rate constants | 10 | ||
| Rate of reaction | 10 | ||
| Orders of reactions | 10 | ||
| Rate reactions and overall orders | 11 | ||
| 5.1.2 Concentration–time graphs | 14 | ||
| Finding rates from concentration–time graphs | 14 | ||
| Half-life | 14 | ||
| 5.1.3 Rate–concentration graphs | 16 | ||
| Initial rates | 16 | ||
| Orders and rate–concentration graphs | 16 | ||
| 5.1.4 Rate-determining step | 19 | ||
| The rate-determining step | 19 | ||
| Predicting reaction mechanisms from rate equations | 19 | ||
| 5.1.5 The effect of temperature on rate constants | 21 | ||
| The rate constant, k | 21 | ||
| The Arrhenius equation | 21 | ||
| 5.1.6 Equilibrium | 23 | ||
| Dynamic equilibrium and Kc | 23 | ||
| Calculating Kc from equilibrium concentrations | 24 | ||
| Homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions | 25 | ||
| 5.1.7 Equilibrium and Kp | 26 | ||
| Mole fractions, partial pressures and Kp | 26 | ||
| 5.1.8 Equilibrium constants and their significance | 28 | ||
| The significance of equilibrium constants | 28 | ||
| How do changes in temperature affect K? | 28 | ||
| How do changes in concentration and pressure affect K? | 30 | ||
| How does the presence of a catalyst affect K? | 30 | ||
| 5.1.9 Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases | 31 | ||
| Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases | 31 | ||
| Models for acids and bases over time | 31 | ||
| Examples of Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases in action | 31 | ||
| Ionic equations | 31 | ||
| Mono, di and tribasic acids | 32 | ||
| Conjugate acid–base pairs | 32 | ||
| 5.1.10 Acid–base reactions and Ka | 33 | ||
| Typical acid–base reactions | 33 | ||
| Redox reactions of acids with metals | 34 | ||
| Strong acids and weak acids | 34 | ||
| The acid dissociation constant, Ka | 35 | ||
| Ka and pKa | 35 | ||
| 5.1.11 Calculating pH of strong and weak acids | 36 | ||
| The pH scale | 36 | ||
| What does a pH value mean? | 37 | ||
| Calculating the pH of strong acids | 37 | ||
| Calculating the pH of weak acids | 37 | ||
| The limitations of scientific approximations | 38 | ||
| Calculating Ka for weak acids | 38 | ||
| 5.1.12 The ionisation of water and Kw | 39 | ||
| Water – acid or base? | 39 | ||
| The signifi cance of Kw | 39 | ||
| Calculating pH for strong bases | 40 | ||
| 5.1.13 Buffers | 42 | ||
| Buffer solutions | 42 | ||
| How does a buffer act to control pH? | 43 | ||
| Calculating the pH of buffer solutions | 43 | ||
| The carbonic acid–hydrogencarbonate buffer system | 43 | ||
| 5.1.14 Neutralisation – titration curves | 45 | ||
| Titrations | 45 | ||
| Titration curves | 45 | ||
| Indicators | 45 | ||
| Strong acid–strong base titrations | 46 | ||
| Strong acid–weak base titrations | 46 | ||
| Weak acid–strong base titrations | 47 | ||
| Weak acid–weak base titrations | 47 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Ocean acidification | 48 | ||
| Practice questions | 50 | ||
| Chapter 5.2: Energy | 52 | ||
| 5.2.1 Lattice enthalpy | 54 | ||
| Why do ionic substances form? | 54 | ||
| Determining lattice enthalpy | 55 | ||
| Key enthalpy changes | 55 | ||
| Constructing Born–Haber cycles | 55 | ||
| 5.2.2 Born–Haber cycle calculations | 58 | ||
| 5.2.3 Further Born–Haber cycle calculations | 60 | ||
| 5.2.4 Enthalpy change of solution and hydration | 62 | ||
| What happens when a solid dissolves? | 62 | ||
| The breakdown of the ionic lattice | 62 | ||
| Hydration of ions | 63 | ||
| Calculating a lattice enthalpy from enthalpy changes of solution and hydration | 64 | ||
| 5.2.5 Entropy | 66 | ||
| What is entropy? | 66 | ||
| Calculating entropy changes | 68 | ||
| 5.2.6 Free energy | 69 | ||
| Spontaneous changes | 69 | ||
| Free energy | 69 | ||
| Limitations of using ΔG to predict feasibility of reactions | 70 | ||
| 5.2.7 Redox | 71 | ||
| Redox | 71 | ||
| Oxidising and reducing agents | 71 | ||
| Redox half-equations | 71 | ||
| 5.2.8 Redox titrations | 73 | ||
| Redox titrations | 73 | ||
| Redox titrations between Fe2+ and MnO 4− | 73 | ||
| Redox titrations between I2 and S2O32− | 74 | ||
| Calculations involving unfamiliar redox systems | 74 | ||
| 5.2.9 Standard electrode potentials | 77 | ||
| Electricity from redox reactions | 77 | ||
| Half cells | 77 | ||
| Determining standard electrode potentials | 79 | ||
| The electrochemical series | 79 | ||
| 5.2.10 Standard cell potentials | 80 | ||
| Making cells from half cells | 80 | ||
| Using standard cell potentials to predict the feasibility of reactions | 81 | ||
| Limitations of predictions of feasibility from cell potentials | 82 | ||
| Storage and fuel cells | 82 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Hydrogen fuel cells | 84 | ||
| Practice questions | 86 | ||
| Chapter 5.3: Transition metals | 88 | ||
| 5.3.1 Transition metals | 90 | ||
| What are transition metals? | 90 | ||
| Writing electron configurations | 90 | ||
| The electron configurations of d-block ions | 91 | ||
| 5.3.2 Transition metal compounds | 93 | ||
| Physical properties | 93 | ||
| Chemical properties | 93 | ||
| Variable oxidation states | 93 | ||
| Transition metals as catalysts | 94 | ||
| Transition metals as industrial catalysts | 95 | ||
| 5.3.3 Transition metals and complex ions | 97 | ||
| Complex ions | 97 | ||
| A multidentate ligand | 98 | ||
| Shapes of complex ions with six-fold coordination | 98 | ||
| Shapes of complex ions with four-fold coordination | 99 | ||
| 5.3.4 Stereoisomerism in complex ions | 100 | ||
| What is a stereoisomer? | 100 | ||
| Transition metal complexes in medicine | 101 | ||
| Bidentate and multidentate ligands | 102 | ||
| Optical isomers | 103 | ||
| 5.3.5 Ligand substitution in complexes | 104 | ||
| Ligand substitution reactions | 104 | ||
| 5.3.6 Ligand substitution and precipitation reactions | 106 | ||
| Haemoglobin and ligand substitution | 106 | ||
| Precipitation reactions | 107 | ||
| 5.3.7 Redox reactions | 109 | ||
| Oxidation and reduction in transition element chemistry | 109 | ||
| Carrying out redox titrations | 109 | ||
| Redox titrations – iodine and thiosulfate | 112 | ||
| 5.3.8 Testing for ions | 114 | ||
| Qualitative analysis | 114 | ||
| Positive ions | 114 | ||
| Negative ions | 115 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Octopus adaptations | 116 | ||
| Practice questions | 118 | ||
| Module 6: Organic chemistry and analysis | 120 | ||
| Chapter 6.1: Aromatic compounds, carbonyls and acids | 120 | ||
| 6.1.1 Benzene and its structure | 122 | ||
| Kekulé’s model of benzene | 122 | ||
| Delocalised structure of benzene | 123 | ||
| 6.1.2 Naming aromatic compounds | 124 | ||
| Structure of benzene derivatives | 124 | ||
| Prefix | 125 | ||
| 6.1.3 Electrophilic substitution | 126 | ||
| Electrophilic substitution | 126 | ||
| Reactions of benzene | 127 | ||
| 6.1.4 Halogenation and Friedel–Crafts | 128 | ||
| Halogenation | 128 | ||
| Friedel–Crafts | 129 | ||
| 6.1.5 Phenols | 130 | ||
| Acidity | 130 | ||
| Reactivity | 131 | ||
| 6.1.6 Electrophilic substitution in aromatic compounds | 132 | ||
| Bromination | 132 | ||
| Nitration | 132 | ||
| Position of substitution | 132 | ||
| 6.1.7 Reactions of carbonyl compounds | 134 | ||
| Oxidation | 134 | ||
| Nucleophilic addition reactions | 134 | ||
| 6.1.8 Characteristic tests for carbonyl compounds | 136 | ||
| 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine | 136 | ||
| Tollens’ reagent | 137 | ||
| 6.1.9 Carboxylic acids | 138 | ||
| Physical properties | 138 | ||
| Chemical properties | 138 | ||
| 6.1.10 Esters | 140 | ||
| Naming esters | 140 | ||
| Esterification | 140 | ||
| Hydrolysis | 141 | ||
| 6.1.11 Acyl chlorides | 142 | ||
| Preparation | 142 | ||
| Uses of acyl chlorides as reagents in organic synthesis | 143 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 144 | ||
| Practice questions | 146 | ||
| Chapter 6.2: Nitrogen compounds, polymers and synthesis | 148 | ||
| 6.2.1 Basicity and the preparation of amines | 150 | ||
| Naming amines | 150 | ||
| Amines as bases | 151 | ||
| Preparation of amines | 152 | ||
| 6.2.2 Reactions of amino acids | 154 | ||
| Structure of an α-amino acid | 154 | ||
| Reactions of amino acids | 155 | ||
| 6.2.3 Amides | 156 | ||
| Structure of amides | 156 | ||
| Naming primary amides | 157 | ||
| Naming secondary amides | 157 | ||
| 6.2.4 Chirality | 158 | ||
| Optical isomers | 158 | ||
| Chirality | 159 | ||
| 6.2.5 Condensation polymers | 160 | ||
| Classifying polymers | 160 | ||
| Polyesters | 161 | ||
| Polyamides | 162 | ||
| 6.2.6 Hydrolysis of polymers | 164 | ||
| Hydrolysis of polyesters | 164 | ||
| 6.2.7 Extending carbon chain length | 166 | ||
| Nucleophilic substitution | 166 | ||
| Nucleophilic addition | 166 | ||
| 6.2.8 Reactions of nitriles | 168 | ||
| Reduction | 168 | ||
| Hydrolysis | 169 | ||
| 6.2.9 Substitution reactions in aromatic compounds | 170 | ||
| Alkylation | 170 | ||
| Acylation | 171 | ||
| 6.2.10 Practical skills for organic synthesis | 172 | ||
| Quickfit | 172 | ||
| Purifi cation of an organic solid | 172 | ||
| Checking purity | 173 | ||
| 6.2.11 Synthetic routes in organic synthesis | 174 | ||
| Identifying functional groups | 174 | ||
| Synthetic routes | 174 | ||
| Aliphatic functional groups | 175 | ||
| Aromatic functional groups | 175 | ||
| Designing synthetic routes | 176 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Chart toppers | 178 | ||
| Practice questions | 180 | ||
| Chapter 6.3: Analysis | 182 | ||
| 6.3.1 Chromatography | 184 | ||
| One-way thin layer chromatography (TLC) | 184 | ||
| Gas chromatography (GC) | 185 | ||
| 6.3.2 Tests for organic functional groups | 186 | ||
| Simple laboratory tests for organic functional groups | 186 | ||
| 6.3.3 Introduction to nuclear magnetic resonance | 187 | ||
| Nuclear magnetic resonance | 187 | ||
| 6.3.4 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy | 189 | ||
| Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy | 189 | ||
| Interpreting carbon-13 NMR spectra | 189 | ||
| Making predictions | 190 | ||
| 6.3.5 Proton NMR pectroscopy | 193 | ||
| Proton NMR spectroscopy | 193 | ||
| Spin–spin coupling | 194 | ||
| 6.3.6 NMR spectra of –OH and –NH protons | 197 | ||
| NMR spectra of compounds with –OH and –NH protons | 197 | ||
| Splitting from –OH and –NH protons | 197 | ||
| 6.3.7 Combined techniques | 199 | ||
| Mass spectrometry | 199 | ||
| Infrared spectroscopy | 199 | ||
| NMR spectroscopy | 200 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Making pain history | 202 | ||
| Practice questions | 204 | ||
| Maths skills | 206 | ||
| Using logarithms | 206 | ||
| Graphs | 207 | ||
| Applying your skills | 208 | ||
| Preparing for your exams | 210 | ||
| Glossary | 218 | ||
| Periodic Table | 221 | ||
| Index | 222 |