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Book Details
Abstract
OCR A level Biology A Student Book 2
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Module 5: Communication, homeostasis and energy | 8 | ||
| Chapter 5.1: Communication and homeostasis | 8 | ||
| 5.1.1 The need for communication systems | 10 | ||
| Survival and activity | 10 | ||
| The threat from changing environments | 10 | ||
| Coordinating the activities of different organs | 11 | ||
| 5.1.2 Homeostasis | 12 | ||
| Homeostasis | 12 | ||
| Feedback | 12 | ||
| 5.1.3 Temperature control in ectotherms | 14 | ||
| Controlling body temperature | 14 | ||
| Endotherm or ectotherm? | 14 | ||
| Temperature control in ectotherms | 14 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages of ectothermy | 15 | ||
| 5.1.4 Temperature control in endotherms | 16 | ||
| Endotherms | 16 | ||
| Temperature regulation mechanisms | 16 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages of endothermy | 17 | ||
| Control of temperature regulation | 17 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: What is a mesotherm? | 18 | ||
| Practice questions | 20 | ||
| Chapter 5.2: Excretion as an example of homeostatic control | 22 | ||
| 5.2.1 Excretion | 24 | ||
| What products must be excreted? | 24 | ||
| The excretory organs | 24 | ||
| The importance of excretion | 24 | ||
| 5.2.2 The structure of the liver | 26 | ||
| Blood supply to the liver | 26 | ||
| Histology of the liver | 26 | ||
| 5.2.3 Liver function | 28 | ||
| Many metabolic functions | 28 | ||
| Storage of glycogen | 28 | ||
| Detoxifi cation | 28 | ||
| Formation of urea | 29 | ||
| 5.2.4 Kidney structure | 30 | ||
| The structure of the kidney | 30 | ||
| 5.2.5 The function of the kidney | 32 | ||
| Ultrafiltration | 32 | ||
| The function of nephrons | 32 | ||
| Selective reabsorption | 32 | ||
| 5.2.6 The function of the kidney | 34 | ||
| Reabsorption of water | 34 | ||
| Concentration changes in the tubule fl uid | 35 | ||
| 5.2.7 Osmoregulation | 36 | ||
| Osmoregulation | 36 | ||
| Altering the permeability of the collecting duct | 36 | ||
| 5.2.8 Kidney failure | 38 | ||
| Kidney failure | 38 | ||
| Treatment of kidney failure | 38 | ||
| Urine analysis | 39 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Pollution in rivers | 40 | ||
| Practice questions | 42 | ||
| Chapter 5.3: Neuronal communication | 44 | ||
| 5.3.1 Roles of sensory receptors | 46 | ||
| Sensory receptors | 46 | ||
| Pacinian corpuscles | 46 | ||
| Generating nerve impulses | 46 | ||
| 5.3.2 Structure and function of neurones | 48 | ||
| Function of neurones | 48 | ||
| Structure of neurones | 48 | ||
| Myelinated and non-myelinated neurones | 49 | ||
| 5.3.3 Nerve impulses: action potentials | 50 | ||
| Neurones at rest | 50 | ||
| Generating an action potential | 50 | ||
| Stages of an action potential | 51 | ||
| 5.3.4 Nerve impulses: transmission | 52 | ||
| Local currents | 52 | ||
| Saltatory conduction | 53 | ||
| Frequency of transmission | 53 | ||
| 5.3.5 Synapses 1 | 54 | ||
| The structure of a cholinergic synapse | 54 | ||
| Transmission across the synapse | 55 | ||
| 5.3.6 Synapses 2 | 56 | ||
| Action potentials and cell signalling | 56 | ||
| Synapses and nervous communication | 56 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Autoimmune disease | 58 | ||
| Practice questions | 60 | ||
| Chapter 5.4: Hormonal communication | 62 | ||
| 5.4.1 Endocrine communication | 64 | ||
| Signalling using hormones | 64 | ||
| Types of hormone | 64 | ||
| First and second messengers | 65 | ||
| 5.4.2 Adrenal glands | 66 | ||
| The structure of the adrenal glands | 66 | ||
| The functions of hormones from the adrenal glands | 66 | ||
| 5.4.3 The pancreas and release of insulin | 68 | ||
| The pancreas | 68 | ||
| Releasing insulin | 69 | ||
| 5.4.4 Regulating blood glucose | 70 | ||
| Blood glucose concentration | 70 | ||
| Negative feedback | 71 | ||
| 5.4.5 Diabetes | 72 | ||
| Diabetes mellitus | 72 | ||
| Treating diabetes | 72 | ||
| The source of insulin for treating diabetes | 73 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Diagnosing diabetes | 74 | ||
| Practice questions | 76 | ||
| Chapter 5.5: Plant and animal responses | 78 | ||
| 5.5.1 Plant responses to the environment | 80 | ||
| Plant responses to external stimuli | 80 | ||
| Types of stimuli | 80 | ||
| Types of response | 80 | ||
| Control of responses – the role of plant hormones | 81 | ||
| 5.5.2 Controlling plant growth | 82 | ||
| Auxins | 82 | ||
| Gibberellins | 82 | ||
| 5.5.3 Plant responses: investigating tropisms | 84 | ||
| Where in a plant does growth occur? | 84 | ||
| Investigating phototropic and geotropic responses | 84 | ||
| Investigating the effect of plant hormones on phototropisms | 85 | ||
| Auxin in geotropic responses of roots | 87 | ||
| 5.5.4 Commercial uses of plant hormones | 88 | ||
| Auxins | 88 | ||
| Cytokinins | 88 | ||
| Gibberellins | 88 | ||
| Ethene | 89 | ||
| 5.5.5 The mammalian nervous system | 90 | ||
| Responding to the environment | 90 | ||
| Divisions of the nervous system | 90 | ||
| Central nervous system | 90 | ||
| Peripheral nervous system | 91 | ||
| 5.5.6 The brain | 93 | ||
| The structure of the human brain | 93 | ||
| 5.5.7 Reflex actions | 96 | ||
| What is a reflex action? | 96 | ||
| Blinking reflex | 96 | ||
| Knee jerk reflex | 97 | ||
| 5.5.8 Coordinating responses | 98 | ||
| Stimulus and response | 98 | ||
| The ‘fight or flight’ response | 98 | ||
| 5.5.9 Controlling heart rate | 101 | ||
| The human heart | 101 | ||
| Heart rate | 101 | ||
| 5.5.10 Muscle | 103 | ||
| Three types of muscle | 103 | ||
| The neuromuscular junction | 104 | ||
| 5.5.11 Muscle contraction | 106 | ||
| The sliding filament hypothesis | 106 | ||
| The role of ATP | 107 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Improving flavours | 108 | ||
| Practice questions | 110 | ||
| Chapter 5.6: Photosynthesis | 112 | ||
| 5.6.1 The interrelationship between photosynthesis and respiration | 114 | ||
| The importance of photosynthesis | 114 | ||
| Respiration | 115 | ||
| How photosynthesis and respiration interrelate | 115 | ||
| 5.6.2 Chloroplasts and photosynthetic pigments | 116 | ||
| The structure of chloroplasts | 116 | ||
| Photosynthetic pigments | 117 | ||
| 5.6.3 The light-dependent stage | 119 | ||
| Two types of photosystem | 119 | ||
| The role of water | 119 | ||
| Photophosphorylation | 119 | ||
| 5.6.4 The light-independent stage | 122 | ||
| The role of carbon dioxide | 122 | ||
| The Calvin cycle | 122 | ||
| The uses of triose phosphate (TP) | 123 | ||
| 5.6.5 Factors affecting photosynthesis | 124 | ||
| Limiting factors | 124 | ||
| Light intensity | 124 | ||
| Carbon dioxide concentration | 124 | ||
| Temperature | 125 | ||
| Water stress | 125 | ||
| 5.6.6 Factors affecting photosynthesis: practical investigations | 126 | ||
| Measuring the rate of photosynthesis | 126 | ||
| Setting up and using a photosynthometer | 126 | ||
| Using the photosynthometer to investigate other factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis | 127 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: The future of fuel | 130 | ||
| Practice questions | 132 | ||
| Chapter 5.7: Respiration | 134 | ||
| 5.7.1 The need for cellular respiration | 136 | ||
| Why do living organisms need to respire? | 136 | ||
| Why do living organisms need energy? | 136 | ||
| The role of ATP | 136 | ||
| 5.7.2 Glycolysis | 138 | ||
| Glycolysis | 138 | ||
| NAD | 138 | ||
| The three main stages of glycolysis | 138 | ||
| The products of glycolysis | 139 | ||
| The stages of respiration | 139 | ||
| 5.7.3 The structure of the mitochondrion | 140 | ||
| Mitochondrial structure | 140 | ||
| How the structure of mitochondria enables them to carry out their functions | 140 | ||
| 5.7.4 The link reaction and the Krebs cycle | 142 | ||
| Pyruvate | 142 | ||
| The link reaction | 142 | ||
| The Krebs cycle | 142 | ||
| The products of the link reaction and the Krebs cycle | 143 | ||
| 5.7.5 Oxidative phosphorylation and the chemiosmotic theory | 144 | ||
| The final stage of aerobic respiration | 144 | ||
| The electron transport chain | 144 | ||
| The proton gradient and chemiosmosis | 144 | ||
| How much ATP is made during oxidative phosphorylation? | 145 | ||
| The total ATP tally per molecule of glucose during aerobic respiration | 145 | ||
| 5.7.6 Anaerobic respiration in eukaryotes | 146 | ||
| Respiration in the absence of oxygen | 146 | ||
| Reduced NAD has to be reoxidised | 146 | ||
| The ATP yield from anaerobic respiration | 147 | ||
| 5.7.7 Practical investigations into respiration rates in yeast | 148 | ||
| Other ways to compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in yeast | 149 | ||
| 5.7.8 Energy values of different respiratory substrates | 150 | ||
| Respiratory substrates | 150 | ||
| Energy values of different respiratory substrates | 151 | ||
| Respiratory quotient | 152 | ||
| 5.7.9 Practical investigations into factors affecting the rate of respiration | 153 | ||
| Using a respirometer | 153 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: ATP – more than just energy currency | 156 | ||
| Practice questions | 158 | ||
| Module 6: Genetics and ecosystems | 160 | ||
| Chapter 6.1: Cellular control | 160 | ||
| 6.1.1 Gene mutations | 162 | ||
| Types of gene mutation | 162 | ||
| Point mutations | 162 | ||
| Indel mutations | 163 | ||
| Not all mutations are harmful | 164 | ||
| 6.1.2 Regulation of gene expression | 165 | ||
| Regulation of gene expression at the transcriptional level | 165 | ||
| Post-transcriptional gene regulation | 167 | ||
| Post-translational level of gene regulation | 167 | ||
| 6.1.3 Genetic control of body plan development | 169 | ||
| Homeobox gene sequences | 169 | ||
| How Hox genes control body plan development in animals | 169 | ||
| Mitosis | 170 | ||
| Apoptosis in the development of body form | 170 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Epigenetics | 172 | ||
| Practice questions | 174 | ||
| Chapter 6.2: Patterns of inheritance | 176 | ||
| 6.2.1 Genetic variation | 178 | ||
| Causes of phenotypic variation | 178 | ||
| Genetic factors | 178 | ||
| Environmental factors | 179 | ||
| 6.2.2 Monogenic inheritance | 180 | ||
| The foundation for genetics | 180 | ||
| The monohybrid cross | 181 | ||
| Punnett squares | 181 | ||
| The test cross | 181 | ||
| 6.2.3 Dihybrid inheritance | 183 | ||
| The simultaneous inheritance of two characteristics | 183 | ||
| Predicting ratios of traits in the F2 generation | 183 | ||
| 6.2.4 Multiple alleles | 185 | ||
| Genes with multiple alleles | 185 | ||
| 6.2.5 Sex linkage | 187 | ||
| Sex linkage in humans | 187 | ||
| Sex linkage in cats | 188 | ||
| Inactivation of X chromosomes in female mammals | 188 | ||
| 6.2.6 Codominance | 189 | ||
| Codominant alleles | 189 | ||
| Codominant inheritance in animals | 189 | ||
| Codominant inheritance in humans | 189 | ||
| Codominant inheritance in plants | 190 | ||
| 6.2.7 Autosomal linkage | 191 | ||
| Linkage | 191 | ||
| Inheritance of autosomally linked genes with no crossing over | 191 | ||
| Inheritance of autosomally linked genes with crossing over | 192 | ||
| 6.2.8 Epistasis | 193 | ||
| Genes can interact | 193 | ||
| Genes working antagonistically | 193 | ||
| Genes working in a complementary fashion | 194 | ||
| 6.2.9 Using the chi-squared test | 197 | ||
| Is the difference between observed and expected results signifi cant? | 197 | ||
| The null hypothesis | 197 | ||
| Applying the chi-squared test | 197 | ||
| 6.2.10 Discontinuous and continuous variation | 199 | ||
| The genetic basis of continuous and discontinuous variation | 199 | ||
| Discontinuous variation | 199 | ||
| Continuous variation | 199 | ||
| Interaction between genes and environment | 200 | ||
| 6.2.11 Factors affecting the evolution of a species | 201 | ||
| Natural selection | 201 | ||
| Genetic drift | 202 | ||
| 6.2.12 The Hardy-Weinberg principle | 204 | ||
| Population genetics | 204 | ||
| The Hardy-Weinberg principle | 204 | ||
| 6.2.13 Isolating mechanisms | 206 | ||
| Speciation | 206 | ||
| Isolating mechanisms | 206 | ||
| 6.2.14 Artificial selection | 208 | ||
| The principles and uses of artificial selection | 208 | ||
| Ethical considerations of artificial selection | 209 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: The gut microbiome | 210 | ||
| Practice questions | 212 | ||
| Chapter 6.3: Manipulating genomes | 214 | ||
| 6.3.1 DNA sequencing | 216 | ||
| Early DNA research | 216 | ||
| Fred Sanger’s DNA sequencing approach | 216 | ||
| The first DNA sequencing machine | 217 | ||
| High throughput sequencing | 217 | ||
| 6.3.2 Applications of gene sequencing | 219 | ||
| The Human Genome Project | 219 | ||
| Genome-wide comparisons between individuals and species | 219 | ||
| Predicting the amino acid sequences of proteins | 220 | ||
| Synthetic biology | 220 | ||
| 6.3.3 DNA profiling | 221 | ||
| The development of DNA profiling | 221 | ||
| DNA profiling | 221 | ||
| Applications of DNA profiling | 222 | ||
| 6.3.4 The polymerase chain reaction | 223 | ||
| Principles of the PCR | 223 | ||
| The PCR process | 223 | ||
| Applications of the PCR | 224 | ||
| 6.3.5 Electrophoresis | 225 | ||
| Principles of electrophoresis | 225 | ||
| Using DNA probes | 226 | ||
| 6.3.6 Genetic engineering | 228 | ||
| The principles of genetic engineering | 228 | ||
| Techniques in genetic engineering | 228 | ||
| Reverse transcriptase | 229 | ||
| Restriction enzymes | 229 | ||
| Ligase enzymes | 229 | ||
| Insulin from GM bacteria | 230 | ||
| 6.3.7 Issues relating to genetic manipulation | 231 | ||
| Ethical issues of genetic manipulation | 231 | ||
| 6.3.8 Gene therapy | 234 | ||
| The principle of gene therapy | 234 | ||
| Somatic cell gene therapy | 234 | ||
| Germ line gene therapy | 235 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: The Human Genome Project | 236 | ||
| Practice questions | 238 | ||
| Chapter 6.4: Cloning and biotechnology | 240 | ||
| 6.4.1 Natural clones | 242 | ||
| Natural clones | 242 | ||
| Plant cloning by vegetative propagation | 242 | ||
| Cloning in animals | 243 | ||
| 6.4.2 Clones in plants | 244 | ||
| Using natural clones | 244 | ||
| Tissue culture | 244 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages of artificial cloning | 245 | ||
| 6.4.3 Artificial clones in animals | 246 | ||
| Artificial cloning in animals | 246 | ||
| Reproductive cloning | 246 | ||
| Non-reproductive cloning | 247 | ||
| Arguments for and against artificial cloning in animals | 247 | ||
| 6.4.4 Introduction to biotechnology | 248 | ||
| History of biotechnology | 248 | ||
| Biotechnology today | 249 | ||
| The advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology | 249 | ||
| Other forms of biotechnology | 250 | ||
| 6.4.5 Using biotechnology to make food | 251 | ||
| Microorganisms in food manufacture | 251 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms | 252 | ||
| 6.4.6 Other processes involving biotechnology | 253 | ||
| Scaling up production of drugs | 253 | ||
| The importance of asepsis | 254 | ||
| Production of penicillin | 254 | ||
| Production of insulin | 254 | ||
| Bioremediation | 254 | ||
| 6.4.7 Microorganism cultures | 256 | ||
| Growing microorganisms | 256 | ||
| Aseptic techniques | 256 | ||
| Techniques used in microbiology | 256 | ||
| Using a liquid medium | 258 | ||
| 6.4.8 Population growth in a closed culture | 259 | ||
| Serial dilutions | 259 | ||
| The growth curve | 260 | ||
| Primary and secondary metabolites | 261 | ||
| 6.4.9 Immobilised enzymes | 262 | ||
| Immobilised enzymes in biotechnology | 262 | ||
| Methods used to immobilise enzymes | 262 | ||
| Industrial use of immobilised enzymes | 263 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Could cloning cure diabetes? | 264 | ||
| Practice questions | 266 | ||
| Chapter 6.5: Ecosystems | 268 | ||
| 6.5.1 Ecosystems | 270 | ||
| What is an ecosystem? | 270 | ||
| Factors affecting ecosystems | 270 | ||
| Ecosystems are dynamic | 271 | ||
| 6.5.2 Transfer of biomass | 272 | ||
| Energy and materials in an ecosystem | 272 | ||
| Biomass transfers through ecosystems | 273 | ||
| Calculating the effi ciency of biomass transfer | 273 | ||
| 6.5.3 Manipulating transfer of biomass | 274 | ||
| Increasing primary productivity - the entry of biomass into a food chain | 274 | ||
| Improving secondary productivity | 275 | ||
| 6.5.4 Recycling within ecosystems | 276 | ||
| Recycling within ecosystems | 276 | ||
| Recycling nitrogen | 276 | ||
| Recycling carbon | 277 | ||
| 6.5.5 Succession | 279 | ||
| Changing ecosystems | 279 | ||
| How does succession happen? | 279 | ||
| Successionon sand dunes | 280 | ||
| Deflected succession | 281 | ||
| 6.5.6 Studying ecosystems | 282 | ||
| Sampling | 282 | ||
| Quadrats | 282 | ||
| Transects | 283 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: An environmentally-friendly diet | 284 | ||
| Practice questions | 286 | ||
| Chapter 6.6: Populations and sustainability | 288 | ||
| 6.6.1 What determines population size? | 290 | ||
| Population size and carrying capacity | 290 | ||
| Types of strategist | 290 | ||
| 6.6.2 Interactions between populations | 292 | ||
| Predators and prey | 292 | ||
| Competition | 292 | ||
| 6.6.3 Conservation and preservation | 294 | ||
| Conservation and preservation | 294 | ||
| Why conserve? | 295 | ||
| 6.6.4 Sustainable management | 296 | ||
| Sustainable management of ecosystems | 296 | ||
| Managing timber production | 296 | ||
| Managing fish stocks | 297 | ||
| 6.6.5 Balancing the conflict between conservation and human needs | 298 | ||
| The Terai region | 298 | ||
| Maasai Mara | 298 | ||
| 6.6.6 Controlling the effects of human activities | 300 | ||
| The Galapagos Islands | 300 | ||
| The Antarctic | 301 | ||
| The Lake District | 302 | ||
| Snowdonia National Park | 303 | ||
| Thinking Bigger: Life in the Antarctic Ocean | 304 | ||
| Practice questions | 306 | ||
| Maths skills | 308 | ||
| Using logarithms | 308 | ||
| Selecting and using a statistical test | 309 | ||
| Applying your skills | 311 | ||
| Exam technique | 314 | ||
| Glossary | 323 | ||
| Index | 330 |