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Abstract
Edexcel A level Biology B Student Book 2
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | 4 | ||
| How to use this book | 6 | ||
| Topic 5: Energy for biological processes | 8 | ||
| Chapter 5.1: Cellular respiration | 8 | ||
| 1: Respiration in cells | 10 | ||
| What is cellular respiration? | 10 | ||
| Where does cellular respiration take place? | 11 | ||
| The hydrogen acceptors | 12 | ||
| Finding out about cellular respiration | 12 | ||
| 2: Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration | 14 | ||
| Glycolysis | 14 | ||
| Anaerobic respiration | 14 | ||
| Discovering the glycolysis pathway | 17 | ||
| 3: The Krebs cycle | 18 | ||
| The link reaction | 18 | ||
| The Krebs cycle | 19 | ||
| 4: The electron transport chain | 20 | ||
| The chemiosmotic theory of ATP production | 21 | ||
| How much ATP is gained? | 22 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 24 | ||
| Chapter 5.2: Photosynthesis | 26 | ||
| 1: Photosynthesis in plants | 28 | ||
| The process of photosynthesis | 28 | ||
| The importance of chloroplasts | 29 | ||
| Chlorophyll | 29 | ||
| Photosystems | 31 | ||
| 2: The biochemistry of photosynthesis | 32 | ||
| The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis | 32 | ||
| The light-independent stage of photosynthesis | 34 | ||
| Using the products of photosynthesis | 35 | ||
| Limiting factors in photosynthesis | 36 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 38 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 40 | ||
| Topic 6: Microbiology and pathogens | 42 | ||
| Chapter 6.1: Bacteria and disease | 42 | ||
| 1: Microbial techniques | 44 | ||
| Culturing microorganisms | 44 | ||
| Aseptic culture techniques | 45 | ||
| 2: Measuring the growth of bacterial cultures | 47 | ||
| Cell counts | 47 | ||
| optical methods (turbidity) | 48 | ||
| Dilution plating | 49 | ||
| Area and mass of fungi | 49 | ||
| 3: Patterns of growth in bacterial colonies | 50 | ||
| The growth of bacterial colonies | 50 | ||
| Analysing the data | 51 | ||
| 4: Bacteria as pathogens | 52 | ||
| How do bacteria cause disease? | 52 | ||
| Endotoxins | 52 | ||
| Exotoxins | 53 | ||
| Host tissue invasion | 53 | ||
| 5: Antibiotics – treating bacterial diseases | 55 | ||
| Drugs against microorganisms | 55 | ||
| Antibiotic action | 55 | ||
| 6: Antibiotic resistance | 57 | ||
| Creating drug-resistant bacteria | 57 | ||
| Healthcare-associated infections | 57 | ||
| Infection prevention and control | 58 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 60 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 62 | ||
| Chapter 6.2: Non-bacterial pathogens | 64 | ||
| 1: Viruses as pathogens | 66 | ||
| Viral diseases | 66 | ||
| Infl uenza – a viral killer | 66 | ||
| 2: Fungi as pathogens | 68 | ||
| Puccinia graminis – the stem rust fungus of cereal crops | 68 | ||
| 3: Protozoa as pathogens | 70 | ||
| The malaria parasite (Plasmodium spp.) | 70 | ||
| Endemic disease | 71 | ||
| Treatment of malaria | 71 | ||
| Prevention and control of malaria | 71 | ||
| The role of the scientific community | 72 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 74 | ||
| Chapter 6.3: The response to infection | 76 | ||
| 1: Non-specific responses to infection | 78 | ||
| Cell recognition | 78 | ||
| Non-specific responses | 78 | ||
| 2: The specific response to infection | 81 | ||
| Different kinds of lymphocytes | 81 | ||
| The humoral response | 81 | ||
| The cell-mediated response | 83 | ||
| Primary and secondary immune response | 83 | ||
| 3: Developing immunity | 85 | ||
| Different types of immunity | 85 | ||
| Inducing immunity | 85 | ||
| Eradicating disease | 86 | ||
| Herd immunity | 86 | ||
| The pros and cons of vaccination | 87 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 88 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 90 | ||
| Topic 7: Modern genetics | 92 | ||
| Chapter 7.1: Using gene sequencing | 92 | ||
| 1: PCR | 94 | ||
| What is the genome? | 94 | ||
| The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | 94 | ||
| 2: DNA sequencing | 96 | ||
| The process of sequencing | 96 | ||
| Using DNA sequencing | 96 | ||
| Sequencing in action | 97 | ||
| 3: DNA profiling | 98 | ||
| Introns and satellites | 98 | ||
| How is a DNA profi le produced? | 98 | ||
| Identifying individuals | 100 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 102 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 104 | ||
| Chapter 7.2: Factors affecting gene expression | 106 | ||
| 1: Transcription factors and gene expression | 108 | ||
| Gene expression in action | 108 | ||
| Controlling gene expression | 108 | ||
| Transcription factors and the control of gene expression | 109 | ||
| 2: Spliceosomes and epigenetics | 110 | ||
| RNA splicing | 110 | ||
| Epigenetics | 110 | ||
| Cell differentiation | 112 | ||
| 3: Stem cells and differentiation | 113 | ||
| The early stages of development | 113 | ||
| Types of stem cells | 113 | ||
| The formation of different cell types in development | 114 | ||
| The development of an organism | 114 | ||
| 4: Therapeutic uses for stem cells | 116 | ||
| Stem cell therapy | 116 | ||
| Therapeutic cloning | 116 | ||
| Pitfalls and potential benefits of stem cell therapy | 117 | ||
| Induced pluripotent stem cells | 117 | ||
| Who could benefit from stem cell therapy? | 117 | ||
| Stem cell success | 118 | ||
| Ethical questions | 118 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 120 | ||
| Chapter 7.3: Gene technology | 122 | ||
| 1: Producing recombinant DNA | 124 | ||
| Producing recombinant DNA | 124 | ||
| Vectors | 125 | ||
| Knockout organisms – silencing genes | 126 | ||
| 2: Gene technology in plants | 127 | ||
| Making transgenic plants | 127 | ||
| Genetic modification of crops | 128 | ||
| 3: The gene technology debate | 129 | ||
| Gene technology in animals and humans | 129 | ||
| Pros and cons and public debate | 130 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 132 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 134 | ||
| Topic 8: Origins of genetic variation | 136 | ||
| Chapter 8.1: Genetic information | 136 | ||
| 1: Origins of genetic variation | 138 | ||
| Meiosis as a source of genetic variation | 138 | ||
| Mutation as a source of genetic variation | 139 | ||
| Random fertilisation as a source of genetic variation | 139 | ||
| 2: Transfer of genetic information | 140 | ||
| Genetics: the basis of inheritance | 140 | ||
| Monogenic (monohybrid) crosses | 141 | ||
| Sampling errors | 142 | ||
| 3: Mendelian genetics and beyond | 143 | ||
| Multiple alleles | 143 | ||
| 4: Dihybrid inheritance of unlinked genes | 146 | ||
| Digenic (dihybrid) crosses | 146 | ||
| Using probability to predict the outcome of complex crosses | 147 | ||
| The chi squared test – getting it right | 147 | ||
| 5: Gene linkage | 150 | ||
| Gene linkage | 150 | ||
| Sex linkage | 151 | ||
| 6: Human genetics, sex linkage and pedigree diagrams | 153 | ||
| The albino trait | 153 | ||
| Sex-linked diseases in humans | 154 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 156 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 158 | ||
| Chapter 8.2: Gene pools | 160 | ||
| 1: Gene pools and genetic diversity | 162 | ||
| Population genetics | 162 | ||
| The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | 163 | ||
| Conditions of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | 164 | ||
| 2: Population bottlenecks and the founder effect | 166 | ||
| Population bottlenecks | 166 | ||
| The founder effect | 166 | ||
| 3: Selection pressure or chance? | 168 | ||
| Selection for change or stability | 168 | ||
| Genetic drift – change due to chance | 169 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 170 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 172 | ||
| Topic 9: Control systems | 174 | ||
| Chapter 9.1: Chemical control in mammals and plants | 174 | ||
| 1: Principles of homeostasis | 176 | ||
| Homeostasis | 176 | ||
| 2: Hormone production in mammals | 178 | ||
| Chemical control in mammals | 178 | ||
| Where are the endocrine glands? | 178 | ||
| 3: Modes of hormone action | 180 | ||
| Hormone release systems | 180 | ||
| The pituitary gland – controlling hormone release | 180 | ||
| How do hormones have their effects? | 181 | ||
| 4: Chemical control systems in plants | 183 | ||
| Which stimuli affect plants? | 183 | ||
| Plant responses | 183 | ||
| How plants grow | 183 | ||
| Auxins | 184 | ||
| More plant hormones | 185 | ||
| Synergy and antagonism | 186 | ||
| 5: Phytochrome and flowering | 187 | ||
| Sensory systems in plants | 187 | ||
| Developing ideas about photoperiodism | 188 | ||
| How is the signal received? | 188 | ||
| 6: Phytochrome and photomorphogenesis | 190 | ||
| Photomorphogenesis | 190 | ||
| Phytochrome as a transcription factor | 190 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 192 | ||
| Chapter 9.2: The mammalian nervous system | 194 | ||
| 1: Nervous systems and neurones | 196 | ||
| The basic structure of the nervous system | 196 | ||
| The structure and function of neurones | 196 | ||
| Myelinated nerve fibres | 197 | ||
| Speedy nerve impulses | 197 | ||
| Investigating nerve impulses | 197 | ||
| 2: How the nervous system works | 199 | ||
| Nerve impulses | 199 | ||
| 3: The neurones in action | 202 | ||
| Saltatory conduction | 202 | ||
| Synapses | 202 | ||
| What are the transmitter substances? | 204 | ||
| 4: The effect of drugs on the nervous system | 205 | ||
| The effects of drugs on the nervous system | 205 | ||
| 5: Sensory systems and the detection of light | 207 | ||
| How do sensory receptors work? | 207 | ||
| The human eye | 207 | ||
| The role of the retina | 208 | ||
| How do the rods and cones work? | 209 | ||
| The cones and colour vision | 210 | ||
| 6: The CNS – coordinating the body | 211 | ||
| The formation of the brain | 211 | ||
| Some of the major areas of the brain | 211 | ||
| The structure and functions of the spinal cord | 212 | ||
| 7: The peripheral nervous system | 214 | ||
| The peripheral nervous system | 214 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 216 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 218 | ||
| Chapter 9.3: Homeostasis | 220 | ||
| 1: Control of the heart rate in mammals | 222 | ||
| Responding to demand | 222 | ||
| Nervous control of the heart | 222 | ||
| Hormonal control of the heart | 223 | ||
| Additional responses | 224 | ||
| 2: Osmoregulation in mammals –the kidney | 225 | ||
| The liver, protein metabolism and homeostasis | 225 | ||
| Osmoregulation in mammals | 225 | ||
| The structure and functions of the kidney | 226 | ||
| Ultrafi ltration | 226 | ||
| Selective reabsorption | 227 | ||
| The urine | 228 | ||
| 3: Control of the kidney and homeostasis | 230 | ||
| Osmoregulation | 230 | ||
| Diabetes insipidus | 231 | ||
| 4: Thermoregulation | 233 | ||
| How do living organisms lose or gain heat? | 233 | ||
| How do animals control their body temperature? | 234 | ||
| Thermoregulation in endotherms | 234 | ||
| Control of the core (blood) temperature | 236 | ||
| 5: Endotherm adaptations for thermoregulation | 238 | ||
| Cold environments | 238 | ||
| Hot environments | 238 | ||
| Control of body temperature by behaviour | 239 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 240 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 242 | ||
| Topic 10: Ecosystems | 244 | ||
| Chapter 10.1: The nature of ecosystems | 244 | ||
| 1: What is ecology? | 246 | ||
| What is an ecosystem? | 246 | ||
| Useful terms | 246 | ||
| Biomes – the major ecosystems | 247 | ||
| 2: How ecosystems evolve | 248 | ||
| Primary succession | 248 | ||
| Secondary succession | 248 | ||
| Surtsey – a case study in succession | 249 | ||
| 3: The effect of abiotic factors on populations | 250 | ||
| Light | 250 | ||
| Temperature | 250 | ||
| Wind and water currents | 250 | ||
| Water availability | 251 | ||
| Oxygen availability | 251 | ||
| Edaphic factors: soil structure and mineral content | 251 | ||
| 4: The effect of biotic factors on populations | 252 | ||
| Predation | 252 | ||
| Finding a mate | 253 | ||
| Territory | 253 | ||
| Parasitism and disease | 253 | ||
| 5: The effect of interactions between abiotic and biotic factors on populations | 254 | ||
| Case study 1: Snowshoe hares and lynxes | 254 | ||
| Case study 2: Woodland birds | 255 | ||
| Density-dependent and density- independent factors | 255 | ||
| Competition | 255 | ||
| 6: Ecological techniques | 257 | ||
| Abundance and distribution | 257 | ||
| Ecological techniques | 257 | ||
| More ecological techniques | 259 | ||
| 7: Statistical analysis | 261 | ||
| What are you testing for? | 261 | ||
| Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient | 261 | ||
| The Student’s t -test | 263 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 266 | ||
| Chapter 10.2: The efficiency of ecosystems | 268 | ||
| 1: Trophic levels | 270 | ||
| A model for a food chain | 270 | ||
| Food webs and beyond | 270 | ||
| Ecological pyramids | 271 | ||
| Losses along a food chain | 272 | ||
| 2: Energy transfers in ecosystems | 273 | ||
| Gross and net primary productivity | 273 | ||
| Energy transfers to higher levels | 273 | ||
| Energy transfer and food chain length | 275 | ||
| 3: Nutrient recycling | 276 | ||
| The need for nutrient recycling | 276 | ||
| Conditions for recycling nutrients | 276 | ||
| Microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle | 276 | ||
| Microorganisms in the carbon cycle | 277 | ||
| The human influence? | 279 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 280 | ||
| Chapter 10.3: Human effects on ecosystems | 282 | ||
| 1: Human influences on ecosystems | 284 | ||
| The human population explosion | 284 | ||
| Human influences on ecosystems | 284 | ||
| The burden of proof | 285 | ||
| 2: Human influences on climate change | 286 | ||
| The greenhouse effect | 286 | ||
| Evidence for global temperature increases | 286 | ||
| Increasing data reliability | 288 | ||
| Evidence for increasing levels of carbon dioxide | 288 | ||
| The role of methane | 289 | ||
| Correlation or causation? | 290 | ||
| Models of global warming | 290 | ||
| 3: The biological impact of climate change | 292 | ||
| Climate change | 292 | ||
| The effect on organisms | 292 | ||
| Changes in species distribution | 293 | ||
| 4: Managing biological resources | 294 | ||
| Depletion of resources – farming | 294 | ||
| Depletion of resources – fi shing | 294 | ||
| The conservation conundrum | 295 | ||
| Conserving fish stocks | 295 | ||
| 5: Conserving global biodiversity | 297 | ||
| The nature of extinction | 297 | ||
| Human causes of extinction | 298 | ||
| Conserving biodiversity | 298 | ||
| The role of CITES | 298 | ||
| Thinking Bigger | 300 | ||
| Exam-style questions | 302 | ||
| Maths skills | 304 | ||
| Using logarithms | 304 | ||
| Selecting and using a statistical test | 304 | ||
| Applying your skills | 306 | ||
| Preparing for your exams | 308 | ||
| Glossary | 317 | ||
| Index | 325 |