BOOK
Berne & Levy Principles of Physiology E-Book
Matthew N. Levy | Bruce M. Koeppen | Bruce A. Stanton
(2005)
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Book Details
Abstract
Here's a succinct, up-to-date summary of the physiological processes that take place in the human body, written in a straightforward and easy-to-understand manner. Derived from Berne et al.'s more lengthy text, Physiology, 5th Edition, it concisely and efficiently covers all of the most need-to-know concepts in the field. Updates include discussions of how the most recent findings in molecular biology and genetics affect our knowledge of physiology. A wealth of case examples, full-color artwork, review questions with answers, and boxes, tables, and graphs help readers to easily and thoroughly master the material.
The smart way to study!
Elsevier titles with STUDENT CONSULT will help you master difficult concepts and study more efficiently in print and online! Perform rapid searches. Integrate bonus content from other disciplines. Download text to your handheld device. And a lot more. Each STUDENT CONSULT title comes with full text online, a unique image library, case studies, USMLE style questions, and online note-taking to enhance your learning experience.
- Provides shaded "clinical boxes" to demonstrate abstract concepts' relevance to human physiological phenomena.
- Offers case examples that show how physiological processes respond to various stimuli or to pathological processes.
- Delivers hundreds of full-color illustrations that make complex physiological principles easy to grasp quickly.
- Includes abundant graphs, figures, and tables that display information at a glance.
- Presents review questions and answers that allow readers to evaluate their comprehension.
- Incorporates a great deal of new information on how new discoveries in molecular biology and genetics affect our understanding of human physiology.
- Includes access to www.studentconsult.com — with the full text of the book online, integration links to relevant material from other STUDENT CONSULT texts, online self-assessment activities, a community center, and other valuable features.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| Berne & Levy Principles of Physiology | iii | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Table of Contents | xi | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Preface | ix | ||
| Part One: Cell Physiology | 3 | ||
| Chapter 1. Cellular Membranes and Transmembrane Transport of Solutes and Water | 3 | ||
| Membranes Divide the Cell into Compartments with Specific Biochemical Functions | 3 | ||
| Membranes Are Composed of Lipids and Proteins | 5 | ||
| Membranes Are Permeability Barriers | 6 | ||
| The Transport of Molecules Across Membranes Occurs by Diffusion, Osmosis, and Protein-Mediated Transport Processes | 8 | ||
| Membranes Are More Permeable to Lipid-Soluble Substances Than to Water-Soluble Substances | 9 | ||
| Water Flows by Osmosis When There Is a Solute Concentration Difference Across a Membrane | 10 | ||
| Transporters Are Responsible for Moving Important Substances Across Membranes | 13 | ||
| Chapter 2. Ionic Equilibria and Resting Membrane Potentials | 21 | ||
| An Ion at Equilibrium Has No Net Force Acting on It | 21 | ||
| When an Ionic Species Cannot Permeate the Membrane, a Gibbs-Donnan Equilibrium May Occur | 24 | ||
| Every Cell Has a Resting Membrane Potential | 26 | ||
| Chapter 3. Generation and Conduction of Action Potentials | 31 | ||
| Action Potentials Have Different Forms in Different Tissues | 31 | ||
| The Membrane Potential of a Cell Can Be Measured by Penetrating Its Plasma Membrane with a Microelectrode | 31 | ||
| Action Potentials Involve the Flow of Ions Across the Plasma Membrane | 33 | ||
| Under Certain Circumstances, It Is More Difficult to Elicit an Action Potential | 36 | ||
| Conduction of Action Potentials Involves Ionic Currents | 37 | ||
| Chapter 4. Synaptic Transmission | 42 | ||
| At Electrical Synapses, Gap Junctions Permit Ions to Flow from One Cell to Another | 42 | ||
| At a Chemical Synapse, a Neurotransmitter Substance Released by the Presynaptic Cell Evokes an Electrical Response in the Postsynaptic Cell | 43 | ||
| The Neuromuscular Junction Is a Chemical Synapse | 44 | ||
| Chemical Synapses Between Neurons Share Many of the Properties of Neuromuscular Junctions | 47 | ||
| Many Compounds Serve as Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators | 50 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Receptors Are Ligand-Gated Ion Channels or Signal-Transduction Proteins | 54 | ||
| Chapter 5. Membrane Receptors, Second Messengers, and Signal-Transduction Pathways | 58 | ||
| A Signal-Transduction Pathway Links the Binding of a Regulatory Substance to Its Receptor with Its Intracellular Effect | 58 | ||
| G Protein–Coupled Membrane Receptors Constitute a Large Family | 62 | ||
| A Second Messenger–Dependent Protein Kinase Is Modulated by the Cellular Level of a Second Messenger | 65 | ||
| Tyrosine Kinases Play Key Roles in the Control of Cellular Proliferation | 67 | ||
| Protein Phosphatases Undo the Work of Protein Kinases | 69 | ||
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Receptors Have Guanylyl Cyclase Activity | 70 | ||
| Nitric Oxide Is a Short-Lived Paracrine Mediator | 70 | ||
| Signal Transduction Components Are Localized Within the Cell | 70 | ||
| Part Two: Nervous System | 75 | ||
| Chapter 6. Cellular Organization | 75 | ||
| The Nervous System Consists of a Complex Aggregate of Cells | 75 | ||
| The Nervous System Consists of a Peripheral and a Central Division | 76 | ||
| The Local Environment of Neurons Is Controlled | 77 | ||
| The Microscopic Anatomy of the Neuron Is Complex | 79 | ||
| The Nervous System Performs Several Important Functions | 80 | ||
| Information Is Transmitted as a Series of Nerve Impulses | 81 | ||
| Synaptic Transmission Allows Neurons to Communicate | 82 | ||
| Axonal Transport Moves Substances Within Neurons | 82 | ||
| Neurons and Neuroglia React to Injury | 83 | ||
| Chapter 7. General Sensory System | 87 | ||
| There Are Several Principles of Sensory Physiology | 87 | ||
| The Somatovisceral Sensory System Responds to Stimuli Applied to the Body or to Viscera | 92 | ||
| Chapter 8. Special Senses | 105 | ||
| The Visual System Detects and Interprets Photic Stimuli | 105 | ||
| The Auditory System Is Designed to Analyze Sound | 111 | ||
| The Vestibular System Is Part of the Membranous Labyrinth of the Inner Ear | 116 | ||
| The Chemical Sensory System Involves Taste and Smell | 118 | ||
| Chapter 9. Motor System | 123 | ||
| The Motor Units in the Spinal Cord Are Highly Organized | 123 | ||
| Descending Motor Pathways Have a Complex Organization | 134 | ||
| The Brainstem Controls Posture and Movement | 135 | ||
| The Cerebral Cortex Controls Voluntary Movement | 139 | ||
| The Cerebellum Assists in the Regulation of Posture and Movement | 140 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia Also Regulate Posture and Movement | 142 | ||
| Chapter 10. Autonomic Nervous System and Its Control | 146 | ||
| The Autonomic Nervous System Is Highly Organized | 146 | ||
| Autonomic Functions Are Coordinated | 149 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Performs a Variety of Functions | 151 | ||
| The Limbic System Includes Parts of the Telencephalon as well as the Hypothalamus | 152 | ||
| Chapter 11. Higher Functions of the Nervous System | 155 | ||
| The Electroencephalogram Records the Electrical Activity of Cerebral Neurons | 155 | ||
| Evoked Potentials Are Changes in Electrical Activity Induced by Activation of Neural Pathways in the Brain | 156 | ||
| States of Consciousness Vary with the Activity in Different Regions of the Brain | 156 | ||
| Learning and Memory Are Processes Based on Experience | 158 | ||
| Cerebral Dominance Denotes the Disparate Behavior Between the Halves of the Brain | 158 | ||
| Part Three: Muscle | 165 | ||
| Chapter 12. Skeletal Muscle | 165 | ||
| Different Types of Muscle Do Different Types of Work | 165 | ||
| Skeletal Muscles Have a Striated Appearance due to the Highly Organized Array of Contractile Elements | 165 | ||
| Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Is Controlled by the Central Nervous System | 167 | ||
| The Skeletal Muscle Action Potential Causes Ca++ Release from the SR into the Cytosol, Promoting Actin-Myosin Interaction and Hence Contraction | 167 | ||
| Myosin Cross-Bridges in the Thick Filament Pull the Actin Thin Filaments Toward the Center of the Sarcomere, Resulting in Contraction | 168 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle Can Be Subdivided into Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle on the Basis of Speed of Contraction | 170 | ||
| The Force of Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Is Increased by Recruitment of More Motor Units and by Tetanus | 171 | ||
| Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs Modulate Force Through Reflex Arcs | 172 | ||
| Afferent Signals from the Spindles Contribute to Skeletal Muscle Tone | 173 | ||
| Muscles Convert the Chemical Energy in ATP into Mechanical Energy, Although the ATP Pool Must Be Continually Replenished | 173 | ||
| When the Energy Demands of Exercise Exceed the Aerobic Capacity of the Muscle, an Oxygen Debt Is Developed | 174 | ||
| Muscle Fatigue Is Not due to Depletion of ATP | 174 | ||
| The Cross-Sectional Diameter of a Skeletal Muscle Increases by Hypertrophy | 174 | ||
| The Length-Tension Relationship of Skeletal Muscle Contraction Is Consistent with the Sliding Filament Theory | 175 | ||
| The Speed of Muscle Shortening Decreases with an Increase in Load | 175 | ||
| Chapter 13. Cardiac Muscle | 178 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle Is a Striated Muscle but Unlike Skeletal Muscle Is Involuntary | 178 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle Cells Form an Electrical Syncytium | 178 | ||
| The Heart Can Beat on Its Own, Without Outside Influence | 179 | ||
| Extracellular Ca++ Is Required for an Action Potential to Release Ca++ from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and thus Initiate Contraction | 179 | ||
| Contraction of Cardiac Muscle Results from Myosin Cross-Bridges in the Thick Filament Pulling the Actin Thin Filaments Toward the Center of the Sarcomere | 180 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle Cannot Increase Force of Contraction by Recruiting More Muscle Cells or Tetany | 180 | ||
| The Frank-Starling Law of the Heart Explains Intrinsic Modulation of Contraction | 182 | ||
| Extrinsic Control of Contraction Occurs by Hormonal Stimulation of Adrenergic Receptors | 182 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle Relies Largely on Aerobic Metabolism, Including Oxidation of Fats, to Meet Energy Demands | 183 | ||
| Cardiac Hypertrophy | 183 | ||
| Chapter 14. Smooth Muscle | 186 | ||
| Smooth Muscle Is a Diverse Group: Some Types Exhibit Spontaneous, Synchronous Activity, Whereas Other Types of Smooth Muscle Act Independently | 186 | ||
| Smooth Muscles Lack Sarcomeres but Contain the Contractile Elements Actin and Myosin | 186 | ||
| Numerous Factors Can Initiate Contraction of Smooth Muscle by Increasing the Cytosolic [Ca++] | 187 | ||
| Ca++ Promotes Actin-Myosin Interaction by Stimulating Myosin Phosphorylation | 188 | ||
| Smooth Muscle Tone Can Be Decreased by Inhibiting Myosin Light-Chain Kinase or Activating Myosin Dephosphorylation | 188 | ||
| Slight Changes in Membrane Potential Can Dramatically Influence Smooth Muscle Tone | 190 | ||
| The Latch State Allows Smooth Muscle to Maintain Tone for Long Periods with Little Energy Use | 190 | ||
| The Number and Size of Smooth Muscle Cells Can Increase Under Certain Conditions | 191 | ||
| Smooth Muscle Cells also Have Synthetic and Secretory Functions | 191 | ||
| Part Four: Cardiovascular System | 197 | ||
| Chapter 15. Overview of the Circulation, Blood, and Hemostasis | 197 | ||
| The Heart and Blood Vessels Form the Circulatory System | 197 | ||
| The Heart Is Composed of Two Pumps | 197 | ||
| Blood Vessels Connect the Heart with Organs | 198 | ||
| How Does Blood Move Through the Cardiovascular Circuit? | 200 | ||
| Blood and Hemostasis | 200 | ||
| Chapter 16. Electrical Activity of the Heart | 208 | ||
| Cardiac Transmembrane Potentials Are Prolonged | 208 | ||
| There Are Two Principal Types of Cardiac Action Potentials | 209 | ||
| The Resting Potential Is Determined by Ionic Diffusion | 210 | ||
| The Fast Response Depends on Na | 212 | ||
| The Slow Response Is Found in all Cardiac Cells | 219 | ||
| The Fast Response Underlies Rapid Conduction of the Cardiac Impulse | 219 | ||
| The Ca++ Current Determines Conduction of the Slow Response | 220 | ||
| Cardiac Excitability Is Determined by the Availability of Na+ and Ca++ Currents | 220 | ||
| Chapter 17. Natural Excitation of the Heart | 225 | ||
| The Sinoatrial Node Is the Natural Pacemaker of the Heart | 226 | ||
| Atrial Muscle Conducts the Cardiac Impulse from the Sinoatrial Node to the Atrioventricular Node | 230 | ||
| Atrioventricular Node Connects the Atria to the Ventricular Conducting System | 230 | ||
| Ventricular Conduction Is Rapid | 232 | ||
| Reentry Is the Cause of Many Rhythm Disturbances | 234 | ||
| Triggered Activity Can Generate Arrhythmias | 235 | ||
| Electrocardiography Is an Important Clinical Tool | 236 | ||
| Arrhythmias Arise from Disturbances of Impulse Initiation or Propagation | 239 | ||
| Chapter 18. Cardiac Pump | 245 | ||
| The Structure of the Heart Is Designed for Optimal Function | 245 | ||
| The Cardiac Chambers Consist of Two Atria, Two Ventricles, and Four Valves | 251 | ||
| The Cardiac Cycle Is the Sequential Contraction and Relaxation of Atria and Ventricles | 253 | ||
| A Graph of the Cardiac Pressure-Volume Relationship Reveals the Sequence of Dynamic Changes During a Single Cardiac Cycle | 255 | ||
| Chapter 19. Regulation of the Heartbeat | 260 | ||
| Autonomic Nerves Control Heart Rate | 260 | ||
| Neural Regulation Involves the Autonomic Nervous System | 261 | ||
| Autonomic Reflexes Regulate Cardiac Function | 263 | ||
| Regulation of Myocardial Performance | 266 | ||
| Chapter 20. Hemodynamics | 276 | ||
| Physical Factors Govern Blood Flow | 276 | ||
| Bloodstream Velocity Depends on Cross-sectional Area | 276 | ||
| The Relationship Between Pressure and Flow Depends on Characteristics of the Blood and Conduits | 277 | ||
| Resistance to Flow Depends on Flow and Pressure Difference | 280 | ||
| Blood Flow May Be Laminar or Turbulent | 282 | ||
| Blood Is a Non-newtonian Fluid | 283 | ||
| Chapter 21. Arterial System | 288 | ||
| Arteries Serve as Hydraulic Filters | 288 | ||
| Arteries Are Compliant Tubes | 289 | ||
| Arterial Blood Pressure Is Determined by Several Factors | 290 | ||
| Indirect Methods Are Often Used to Measure Blood Pressure | 295 | ||
| Chapter 22. Microcirculation and Lymphatics | 298 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of Circulation Includes Arterioles and Capillaries | 298 | ||
| Transcapillary Exchange Encompasses a Few Processes | 301 | ||
| The Lymphatics Return Fluid, and Solutes May Escape from the Capillaries to the Circulating Blood | 305 | ||
| Chapter 23. Peripheral Circulation and Its Control | 309 | ||
| Contraction and Relaxation of Arteriolar Vascular Smooth Muscle Regulate Peripheral Blood Flow | 309 | ||
| Peripheral Blood Flow Is Controlled by Intrinsic Factors | 310 | ||
| Extrinsic Control of Peripheral Blood Flow Is Mediated Mainly by the Sympathetic Nervous System | 312 | ||
| Regulation of Peripheral Blood Flow Is Achieved by Balance Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors | 316 | ||
| Chapter 24. Control of Cardiac Output: Coupling of the Heart and Blood Vessels | 320 | ||
| Critical Cardiac and Vascular Factors Regulate Cardiac Output | 320 | ||
| Cardiac Output Affects Central Venous Pressure | 321 | ||
| The Heart and Blood Vessels Interact with Each Other | 324 | ||
| Changes in Heart Rate Have Variable Effects on Cardiac Output | 327 | ||
| Ancillary Factors also Regulate Cardiac Output | 328 | ||
| Chapter 25. Special Circulations | 332 | ||
| Cutaneous Circulation Is the Flow of Blood to the Skin | 332 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle Circulations Are Intertwined | 334 | ||
| Coronary Circulation Is Dependent on Several Factors and Conditions | 335 | ||
| Cerebral Circulation Is Regulated by Local and Neural Factors | 338 | ||
| Splanchnic Circulation Includes Intestinal and Hepatic Circulation | 340 | ||
| Fetal Circulation Supplies the Tissues with O2 and Nutrients from the Placenta and Bypasses the Fetal Lungs | 341 | ||
| Chapter 26. Interplay of Central and Peripheral Factors in Control of the Circulation | 346 | ||
| Exercise Has Many Benefits for Circulation | 346 | ||
| Hemorrhaging Is a Dangerously Rapid Loss of Blood | 351 | ||
| Part Five: Respiratory System | 361 | ||
| Chapter 27. Overview of the Respiratory System | 361 | ||
| The Major Function of the Lung Is Gas Exchange | 361 | ||
| Breathing Is Regulated in the Central Nervous System | 365 | ||
| Lung Function Is Closely Related to Lung Structure | 366 | ||
| Chapter 28. Mechanical Properties of the Lung and Chest Wall | 372 | ||
| Lung Volume Determines Many Properties of the Lung | 372 | ||
| Turbulent Airflow Creates a Sound Heard with the Stethoscope | 375 | ||
| Important Clinical Tests of Pulmonary Function Include the Spirogram and the Flow-Volume Curve | 377 | ||
| The Work of Breathing Occurs Primarily During Inspiration | 379 | ||
| Chapter 29. Ventilation, Perfusion, and Their Relationship | 384 | ||
| Ventilation Is Determined by the Tidal Volume and the Respiratory Frequency | 384 | ||
| Perfusion Is the Process by Which Deoxygenated Blood Passes Through the Lung and Becomes Reoxygenated | 386 | ||
| The Arteries of the Pulmonary Circulation Are Ideally Configured to Support Their Functions | 387 | ||
| Ventilation and Perfusion Are Essential for Normal Gas Exchange | 389 | ||
| Chapter 30. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport | 396 | ||
| Gas Movement Throughout the Respiratory System Occurs Predominantly via Diffusion | 396 | ||
| Hemoglobin Is the Major Transport Molecule for Oxygen | 398 | ||
| Proper Transport of CO2 from the Body Provides the Necessary Exchange of Gases in the Respiratory System | 402 | ||
| Chapter 31. Control of Respiration | 407 | ||
| CO2 Is the Most Important Regulator of Ventilation | 407 | ||
| Pulmonary Mechanoreceptors Affect Ventilation and Ventilatory Patterns | 411 | ||
| Chapter 32. Nonrespiratory Functions of the Lung | 417 | ||
| The Mucociliary Transport System Is Composed of Periciliary Fluid, a Mucus Layer, and Cilia Functioning Together to Remove Particulates from the Lung | 417 | ||
| The Mucosal Immune System Provides the Major Immune Defense Mechanisms for the Lung | 420 | ||
| Part Six: Digestive System | 429 | ||
| Chapter 33. Motility of the Gastrointestinal Tract | 429 | ||
| The Wall of the Gastrointestinal Tract Has a Layered Structure | 429 | ||
| The Functions of the Gastrointestinal Tract Are Regulated by Hormones, Paracrine Agonists, and Substances Released from Neurons | 430 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Cells Have Unique Mechanical and Electrophysiological Properties | 434 | ||
| The Enteric Nervous System Functions as a Semiautonomous “Enteric Brain” | 435 | ||
| Chewing Is Frequently a Reflex Behavior | 436 | ||
| Swallowing Is Accomplished via a Complex Reflex | 436 | ||
| The Esophagus Moves Food from the Pharynx to the Stomach | 438 | ||
| Contractions of the Stomach Mix and Propel Gastric Contents | 439 | ||
| Vomiting Is the Expulsion of Gastric (and Sometimes Duodenal) Contents from the Gastrointestinal Tract via the Mouth | 442 | ||
| The Motility of the Small Intestine Mixes and Propels Intestinal Contents | 443 | ||
| The Motility of the Colon Facilitates the Absorption of Salts and Water and Permits the Orderly Evacuation of Feces | 445 | ||
| Chapter 34. Gastrointestinal Secretions | 451 | ||
| Saliva Lubricates Food and Begins the Digestion of Starch | 451 | ||
| Gastric Secretions Begin the Digestion of Proteins and Have Other Important Functions | 454 | ||
| Pancreatic Secretions Include Enzymes That Digest All the Major Foodstuffs | 461 | ||
| Functions of the Liver and Gallbladder | 465 | ||
| Electrolytes, Water, and Mucus Are Secreted by Intestinal Mucosa | 470 | ||
| Chapter 35. Digestion and Absorption | 473 | ||
| Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates Occur Mainly in the Duodenum and Jejunum | 473 | ||
| Digestion and Absorption of Lipids Occur Mainly in the Duodenum and Jejunum | 477 | ||
| The Gastrointestinal Tract Absorbs and Secretes Water and Electrolytes | 480 | ||
| Ca++ Is Actively Absorbed in All Segments of the Intestine | 488 | ||
| A Small Fraction of Ingested Iron Is Absorbed | 489 | ||
| Magnesium, Phosphate, and Copper Are Absorbed in the Small Intestine | 491 | ||
| Transporters Mediate Absorption of Most of the Water-Soluble Vitamins | 491 | ||
| Part Seven: Renal System | 497 | ||
| Chapter 36. Elements of Renal Function | 497 | ||
| The Kidneys Have Several Major Functions | 497 | ||
| Structure and Function Are Closely Linked in the Kidneys | 498 | ||
| Once Urine Leaves the Renal Pelvis, It Flows Through the Ureters and Enters the Urinary Bladder, Where Urine Is Stored | 503 | ||
| Micturition Is the Process of Emptying the Urinary Bladder | 504 | ||
| The Glomerular Filtration Rate Is Equal to the Sum of the Filtration Rates of All Functioning Nephrons | 505 | ||
| Blood Flow Through the Kidneys Serves Several Important Functions | 508 | ||
| Hormones and Sympathetic Nerves Regulate the Glomerular Filtration Rate and Renal Blood Flow | 510 | ||
| Chapter 37. Solute and Water Transport Along the Nephron: Tubular Function | 516 | ||
| Quantitatively, the Reabsorption of NaCl and Water Represents the Major Function of Nephrons | 516 | ||
| Several Hormones Regulate NaCl Reabsorption | 525 | ||
| ADH Regulates Water Reabsorption | 526 | ||
| Chapter 38. Control of Body Fluid Osmolality and Extracellular Fluid Volume | 531 | ||
| Body Fluid Compartments | 531 | ||
| Control of Body Fluid Osmolality: Urine Concentration and Dilution | 533 | ||
| Control of Extracellular Fluid Volume and Regulation of Renal NaCl Excretion | 542 | ||
| Chapter 39. Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate Homeostasis | 555 | ||
| K+, One of the Most Abundant Cations in the Body, Is Critical for Many Cell Functions | 555 | ||
| Several Hormones Promote the Uptake of K+ into Cells After a Rise in Plasma [K+] | 556 | ||
| Some Hormones, Drugs, and Factors Disturb Normal K+ Uptake by Cells | 557 | ||
| The Kidneys Play a Major Role in Maintaining K+ Balance | 559 | ||
| Ca++ and Pi Are Multivalent Ions That Have Many Complex and Vital Functions | 563 | ||
| Chapter 40. Role of the Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance | 573 | ||
| Overview of Acid-Base Balance | 573 | ||
| Renal Acid Excretion | 574 | ||
| The Diagnosis of and Approach to Patients with Acid-Base Disorders Frequently Involve the Measurement and Interpretation of Arterial Blood Gases | 579 | ||
| The Analysis of an Acid-Base Disorder Is Directed at Identifying the Underlying Cause so that Appropriate Therapy Can Be Initiated | 583 | ||
| Part Eight: Endocrine System | 589 | ||
| Chapter 41. General Principles of Endocrine Physiology | 589 | ||
| The Endocrine System Is a Key Component in Maintenance of Homeostasis | 589 | ||
| Hormones Are Synthesized, Stored, and Secreted in a Variety of Ways | 591 | ||
| The Dominant Mechanism of Regulating Hormone Secretion Is Negative Feedback | 593 | ||
| Hormone Turnover Is the Rate at Which Hormones Are Released and Replaced | 594 | ||
| Hormone Responses Require Recognition by the Target Cell, Generation of Second Messengers, and Various Intracellular Effector Mechanisms | 595 | ||
| Chapter 42. Whole-Body Metabolism | 601 | ||
| Energy Metabolism Considers Obtaining, Storing, and Expending Sources of Energy | 601 | ||
| Energy Generation Is Dependent on Chemical and Gaseous Sources | 603 | ||
| Energy Is Stored and Transferred | 604 | ||
| Carbohydrate Metabolism Is the Body’s Method of Processing of Sugars | 606 | ||
| Intake of Proteins, Especially Those Containing Amino Acids That Cannot Be Synthesized in the Body, Is Vital to Health | 607 | ||
| Fat Metabolism Occurs in Several Ways | 608 | ||
| Metabolic Adaptations Include Fasting and Exercise | 610 | ||
| Energy Stores Are Regulated | 611 | ||
| Chapter 43. Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets | 617 | ||
| The Cells of Origin of Insulin and Glucagon Are Interspersed in Small Islets Scattered Throughout the Pancreas | 617 | ||
| Amylin Moderates the Glucose-Lowering Effects of Insulin | 625 | ||
| Glucagon Is Synthesized and Secreted in Response to a Lowering of Plasma Glucose Levels | 625 | ||
| Substrate Fluxes Are Sensitive to the Relative Availability of Insulin and Glucagon | 627 | ||
| Chapter 44. Endocrine Regulation of the Metabolism of Calcium and Phosphate | 631 | ||
| The Calcium Ion Is of Fundamental Importance to All Biological Systems | 631 | ||
| The Phosphate Ion Is a Component of Many Intermediates in Glucose Metabolism | 633 | ||
| Bone Turnover Is Regulated | 633 | ||
| Vitamin D, Through Its Active Metabolites, Is a Major Regulator of Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism | 636 | ||
| The Function of the Parathyroid Gland Is to Regulate Plasma Calcium and Phosphate Levels | 638 | ||
| Calcitonin Is Secreted in Response to an Increased Plasma Calcium Level | 643 | ||
| An Integrated System Maintains Normal Concentrations of Calcium and Phosphate | 643 | ||
| Chapter 45. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland | 647 | ||
| The Anatomy and Embryological Development of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Subserve Their Close Functional Relationship | 647 | ||
| Hypothalamic Function Regulates Pituitary Gland Secretions to Coordinate with the Essential Needs of the Organism | 649 | ||
| The Posterior Pituitary Gland Regulates Water Metabolism and Breast Milk Secretion | 651 | ||
| The Anterior Pituitary Gland Secretes Numerous Hormones with Various Functions | 654 | ||
| Chapter 46. Thyroid Gland | 663 | ||
| Functional Anatomy | 663 | ||
| Thyroid Gland Activity Is Regulated by the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary Gland | 667 | ||
| The Metabolism of Thyroid Hormone Contributes to Its Actions | 669 | ||
| The Intracellular Actions of Thyroid Hormone Are Mediated by Nuclear Receptors and Changes in Gene Expression | 670 | ||
| Chapter 47. Adrenal Cortex | 676 | ||
| Adrenal Hormones from Separate Anatomical Zones Regulate or Modulate Many Essential Physiological Processes | 676 | ||
| Cortisol Secretion by the Adrenal Cortex Is Basically Regulated Through Negative Feedback on the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland | 679 | ||
| Cortisol (Glucocorticoids) Actions Permit Many Physiological Processes to Be Maintained at Normal Levels | 682 | ||
| Adrenal Sex Steroids Maintain the Skeletal System and Protect Against Osteoporosis | 686 | ||
| Aldosterone Secretion Is Regulated Primarily in Response to Changes in Na+ Availability and Extracellular Fluid Volume | 686 | ||
| Chapter 48. Adrenal Medulla | 691 | ||
| The Adrenal Medulla Functions Partly as a Sympathetic Nervous System Ganglion and Partly as an Endocrine Gland | 691 | ||
| Catecholamine Hormones Are Synthesized in Sequential Steps Alternating Between the Cytoplasm and Storage Granules of the Adrenomedullary Cells | 692 | ||
| Catecholamine Hormones Work Through Several Plasma Membrane Receptors and Second Messengers | 694 | ||
| The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis, Adrenal Medulla, and Sympathetic Nervous System Together Integrate the Response to Stress | 696 | ||
| Chapter 49. Overview of Reproductive Function | 699 | ||
| The Gonads Contain Several Cell Types with Different Reproductive and Hormonal Functions | 699 | ||
| The Gonads Synthesize Androgens and Estrogens by the Same Biochemical Steps Used in the Adrenal Cortex | 700 | ||
| Gonadal Steroid Hormone Secretion Is Regulated | 701 | ||
| The Secretion Pattern of Sex Steroid Hormones Varies Markedly at Different Stages of Life | 703 | ||
| The Two Genders Are Normally Differentiated by Genetic, Gonadal, and Genital (Phenotypic) Factors | 705 | ||
| Germ Cell Development Is Determined by Gender | 709 | ||
| Chapter 50. Male Reproduction | 712 | ||
| The Anatomy of the Testis Creates Special Conditions Conducive to the Maturation of Germ Cells Under Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Regulation | 712 | ||
| Biology of Spermatogenesis | 713 | ||
| Delivery of Spermatozoa | 715 | ||
| During Puberty, Males Develop Adult Levels of Androgenic Hormones and Full Reproductive Function | 716 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Spermatogenesis | 716 | ||
| Sertoli Cell Function and Its Regulation | 717 | ||
| Testosterone, an Androgen, Is in Part Only a Circulating Prohormone | 719 | ||
| Outside the Testis, Androgens Act on Reproductive Organs, Produce Secondary Sexual Characteristics, Stimulate Somatic Growth and Maturation, and Influence Metabolism | 720 | ||
| Chapter 51. Female Reproduction | 724 | ||
| Biology of Oogenesis | 724 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation Is Part of Oogenesis | 729 | ||
| The Cyclic Changes in Ovarian Hormone Secretion Affect All the Reproductive Tract Tissues Involved in Conception | 733 | ||
| Estrogens and Progesterone Modulate Gene Expression | 735 | ||
| Estradiol and Progesterone Circulate Bound to Protein | 736 | ||
| Female Puberty Begins with the Increase of Gonadotropin Secretion | 736 | ||
| Estrogen Deficiency Characterizes Menopause | 737 | ||
| The Endocrine Aspects of Pregnancy Are Many and Varied | 737 | ||
| Maternal Metabolism Is Adapted to the Changing Needs of the Mother and Fetus | 742 | ||
| Just as the Maintenance of the Pregnant State Depends on a Unique Hormonal Milieu, Its Termination Probably also Depends on Specific Hormonal Changes | 742 | ||
| The Maternal Provision of Nutrients to the Newborn Begins Within 48 Hours of Delivery | 744 | ||
| Answers to Case Studies | 747 | ||
| Index | 787 |