Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The third edition of the book is thoroughly updated and presented in new four-colour format. It highlights the important aspects of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology. It presents a concise exam-oriented text as per the guidelines of Medical Council of India and health universities across the country, and nearby countries.
Designed specifically to meet the needs of the students pursuing undergraduate courses in Medical, Dental, Physiotherapy, Nursing, Pharmacy and Science.
- Maintained the basic pattern, followed for text in question–answer format which helps the students in quick learning and revision
- Newer developments and revisions to keep up the text with the latest changes as per the undergraduates’ curriculum.
- More emphasis on systemetic presentation of information, helps to recollect the things easily
New to this Edition
- Merged Parasitolgy section with Microbiology section within same page range in single book
- Addition of many new coloured figures to facilitate greater retention of knowledge. Also replacement of earlier figures with newer coloured figures to make understanding better
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| Front matter | iii | ||
| Medical microbiology and parasitology prep manual for undergraduates third edition | iii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Preface to the third edition | vii | ||
| Preface to the first edition | viii | ||
| Acknowledgements | ix | ||
| Table of contents | xi | ||
| I General Microbiology | 1 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| ■ What is the difference between microorganisms and macroorganisms? | 3 | ||
| ■ What does microbiology deal with? | 3 | ||
| ■ Group microorganisms on the basis of their morphology and functional properties. | 3 | ||
| ■ To which taxonomic kingdom do microorganisms belong? Name the subdivisions of kingdom of microorganisms on the basis of cellular organization. | 4 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. | 4 | ||
| ■ Discuss the beneficial and harmful effects of microorganisms on human, animal and plant life. | 5 | ||
| Beneficial effects | 5 | ||
| Harmful effects | 5 | ||
| ■ What does medical microbiology deal with? | 5 | ||
| ■ List the various branches of medical microbiology. | 5 | ||
| 2 History of microbiology | 6 | ||
| ■ Discuss the evolution of the concept of microbes and their generation. | 6 | ||
| ■ Discuss the important contributions of antony van leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) in the field of microbiology. | 6 | ||
| ■ List the important contributions of louis pasteur (1822–1895). | 7 | ||
| ■ List the important contributions of joseph lister (1827–1912). | 7 | ||
| ■ What are the important contributions of robert koch (1843–1910)? | 7 | ||
| ■ Who is known as the father of chemotherapy? List his important contributions. | 8 | ||
| ■ Who discovered prontosil as an antibacterial agent? | 8 | ||
| ■ Mention the contributions of the following in the discovery of antibiotics: (a) sir alexander fleming (1928), (b) chain (1940), and (c) waksman (1944). | 8 | ||
| ■ In a tabulated form list chronologically (from 1850–1896) names of scientists and their important discoveries. | 8 | ||
| ■ Discuss with examples, the discovery of viruses. | 8 | ||
| ■ Tabulate important discoveries in virology by smith (1933), hyashi (1934), row (1953), montagnier (1983), robert gallo (1984). | 9 | ||
| ■ Apart from contributions of pasteur in the development of vaccines for immunization, mention other important historical landmarks in immunology. | 9 | ||
| 3 Microscopy and staining techniques | 11 | ||
| ■ What is a microscope and how is it important in the study of microbes? | 11 | ||
| ■ Give the unit(s) of measurement of microbes. also give the conversion table for these. | 11 | ||
| ■ Based on the principle of magnification, name two types of microscopes. | 11 | ||
| 1. Light or optical microscope | 11 | ||
| 2. Electron microscope | 11 | ||
| ■ State the working principle and uses of various types of light/optical microscopes, and the electron microscope. | 12 | ||
| 1. Bright field microscope (compound microscope) | 12 | ||
| Objective lenses | 12 | ||
| Eye piece (ocular lens) | 12 | ||
| 2. Phase contrast microscope | 12 | ||
| Uses | 12 | ||
| 3. Dark field microscope | 13 | ||
| II Immunology | 121 | ||
| 16 Immunity | 121 | ||
| ■ Define immunity. | 123 | ||
| ■ Draw a flowchart to represent the different types of immunity. | 123 | ||
| ■ What is natural or innate immunity? Describe different types of natural immunity. | 123 | ||
| Types of natural or innate immunity - three types (flowchart 16.1) | 123 | ||
| Species immunity | 123 | ||
| Racial immunity | 124 | ||
| Individual immunity | 124 | ||
| ■ How does nonspecific innate immunity operate? | 124 | ||
| ■ Describe the external defense system of the body. | 124 | ||
| Epithelial barriers | 124 | ||
| Role of skin | 124 | ||
| Role of mucous membrane | 125 | ||
| Role of body secretions | 125 | ||
| ■ Describe in detail the internal defense system of the body. | 125 | ||
| Tissue factors | 125 | ||
| 1. Humoral factors | 125 | ||
| 2. Cellular factors | 125 | ||
| Inflammation | 126 | ||
| Role in defense | 126 | ||
| Fever | 126 | ||
| ■ What is acquired immunity? Give the name of two types of acquired immunity. | 126 | ||
| ■ What is active immunity? Briefly describe naturally acquired and artificially acquired active immunity. | 126 | ||
| Naturally acquired active immunity | 127 | ||
| Artificially acquired active immunity | 127 | ||
| ■ Write a short note on passive immunity. | 128 | ||
| Naturally acquired passive immunity | 128 | ||
| Artificially acquired passive immunity | 128 | ||
| ■ Differentiate between active and passive immunity. | 129 | ||
| ■ Briefly describe the types of immunity other than active and passive immunity. | 129 | ||
| 1. Local immunity | 129 | ||
| 2. Herd immunity | 130 | ||
| 17 Antigen (Ag) | 131 | ||
| ■ Explain what an antigen is? | 131 | ||
| ■ Mention two attributes of antigenicity. | 131 | ||
| ■ Classify antigens on the basis of the response they are able to induce in the host. | 131 | ||
| 1. Simple | 132 | ||
| 2. Complex | 132 | ||
| ■ What is an antigenic determinant? List its properties. | 132 | ||
| ■ Describe the properties of antigens (requirements of immunogenicity/factors affecting immunogenicity). | 132 | ||
| 1. Foreignness | 132 | ||
| 2. Size | 132 | ||
| 3. Chemical nature | 132 | ||
| 4. Susceptibility to tissue enzymes | 133 | ||
| ■ Explain antigenic specificity. also categorize specificity of natural tissue antigens of animals. | 133 | ||
| Species specificity | 133 | ||
| Isospecificity | 133 | ||
| Autospecificity | 133 | ||
| Organ specificity | 134 | ||
| Heterogenetic or heterophile specificity | 134 | ||
| 18 Immunoglobulins (Igs)—antibodies (Abs) | 135 | ||
| ■ Define antibodies. | 135 | ||
| ■ Describe the characteristics of antibodies. | 135 | ||
| ■ With the help of suitable illustrations describe the structure of antibodies. | 135 | ||
| Variable and constant region | 137 | ||
| Hinge region | 137 | ||
| Immunoglobulin domains | 137 | ||
| ■ Mention the name of five classes of immunoglobulins. describe the features and biological activities of each of them. | 138 | ||
| Immunoglobulin G (IgG) | 138 | ||
| Biological activities | 138 | ||
| Immunoglobulin A (IgA) | 139 | ||
| Biological activities | 139 | ||
| Immunoglobulin M (IgM) | 140 | ||
| Biological activities | 140 | ||
| Immunoglobulin D (IgD) | 140 | ||
| III Systemic Bacteriology | 227 | ||
| 28 Laboratory diagnosis of bacterial diseases | 227 | ||
| ■ What precautions should be taken while collecting specimen for laboratory diagnosis? | 229 | ||
| ■ Give the collection procedure for the following specimens: Urine, genital tract, cerebrospinal fluid, stool, sputum, throat swab, serous fluid, pus, and blood. | 229 | ||
| Collection of urine | 229 | ||
| Collection of genital tract specimens | 229 | ||
| 1. Urethral discharge | 229 | ||
| 2. Cervical swab | 229 | ||
| 3. Vaginal swab | 230 | ||
| Collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | 230 | ||
| Collection of stool | 230 | ||
| Collection of sputum | 230 | ||
| Collection of throat swab | 230 | ||
| Collection of serous fluids | 230 | ||
| Collection of pus | 230 | ||
| Collection of blood | 230 | ||
| ■ What negative effects would delay in transport have on specimens collected for laboratory diagnosis? How can this be avoided? cite examples. | 231 | ||
| Stool | 231 | ||
| Swabs | 231 | ||
| Blood | 231 | ||
| Urine | 231 | ||
| CSF | 231 | ||
| Sputum | 231 | ||
| ■ By which methods of direct microscopy can microorganisms be identified/detected? | 231 | ||
| ■ Mention the cultural conditions suitable for growth of medically important bacteria. | 232 | ||
| Growth requirements | 232 | ||
| Growth conditions | 232 | ||
| Media for culture | 232 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the methods by which microorganisms grown in a culture medium can be identified. | 233 | ||
| ■ Why is antimicrobial susceptibility testing important? | 233 | ||
| ■ Why and on what basis are serological tests performed? Name the commonly used serological tests. | 233 | ||
| ■ How are bacterial antigens detected? | 234 | ||
| ■ List the molecular methods for detection of microorganisms. in 2–5 sentences explain any two methods. | 234 | ||
| ■ Besides culture, bacterial antigens and molecular detection, which other methods are used for identification of microorganisms? | 234 | ||
| ■ Under which circumstances does typing of a strain becomes necessary? List the methods by which it can be performed. | 235 | ||
| 29 Staphylococcus | 236 | ||
| ■ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of staphylococcus. | 236 | ||
| ■ Which species of staphylococcus are important to human beings? | 236 | ||
| ■ Classify staphylococci on the basis of coagulase production. | 236 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the important morphological features of staph. aureus. | 236 | ||
| Morphological features | 236 | ||
| ■ Give the cultural characteristics of staph. aureus. | 237 | ||
| Cultural characters | 237 | ||
| Media and colony characters | 237 | ||
| ■ List the biochemical reactions characteristic to staph. aureus. | 238 | ||
| ■ What are the characteristic features of staph. aureus? | 238 | ||
| ■ To which factors is staph. aureus resistant/sensitive? | 238 | ||
| ■ Write short on each of the following virulence factors produced by staph. aureus: (a) antigens, (b) toxins and (c) enzymes. | 238 | ||
| (a) Antigens | 238 | ||
| (b) Toxins | 239 | ||
| (c) Enzymes | 239 | ||
| ■ Describe the methods of typing staphylococcus. | 240 | ||
| 1. Bacteriophage typing | 240 | ||
| 2. Serological typing | 240 | ||
| 3. Other typing methods | 240 | ||
| ■ Describe the pathogenicity of staph. aureus. | 240 | ||
| Superficial and deep infections | 240 | ||
| Toxin-mediated diseases | 241 | ||
| ■ Write a short note on toxin-mediated diseases caused by staph. aureus. | 241 | ||
| Food poisoning | 241 | ||
| Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome | 241 | ||
| Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) | 241 | ||
| ■ Describe in brief the laboratory diagnosis of staph. aureus infection. | 241 | ||
| Specimens | 241 | ||
| Collection | 241 | ||
| Transport | 242 | ||
| Processing of specimen | 242 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 242 | ||
| Culture | 242 | ||
| Biochemical reactions | 242 | ||
| Serology | 242 | ||
| Antibiotics sensitivity testing | 242 | ||
| ■ Write a note on methicillin resistant staph. aureus (MRSA). | 242 | ||
| ■ How are staph. aureus infections treated? | 243 | ||
| ■ Mention the characteristic features of staph. epidermidis and staph. saprophyticus. | 243 | ||
| 30 Streptococcus | 244 | ||
| ■ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of streptococci. | 244 | ||
| ■ Classify streptococci. | 244 | ||
| ■ Differentiate between alpha-, beta- and gamma-haemolysis. | 245 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the important morphological features of Str. pyogenes. | 245 | ||
| Morphological features | 245 | ||
| ■ Mention the cultural characteristics of Str. pyogenes; include media and colony characters. | 245 | ||
| Cultural characters | 245 | ||
| Media and colony characters | 245 | ||
| ■ List the biochemical reactions, which are specific to Str. pyogenes. | 245 | ||
| ■ To which factors is Str. pyogenes resistant or sensitive? | 246 | ||
| ■ Mention the type of antigens present in Str. pyogenes. | 246 | ||
| ■ Write short notes on the virulence factors produced by Str. pyogenes. | 246 | ||
| Antigens | 246 | ||
| Toxins | 246 | ||
| Haemolysins | 246 | ||
| Erythrogenic toxin | 247 | ||
| Enzymes | 247 | ||
| ■ Mention the types of infections caused by streptococci. | 247 | ||
| ■ Write a note on suppurative infections. | 248 | ||
| Suppurative infections | 248 | ||
| 1. Respiratory tract infections | 248 | ||
| 2. Skin and soft tissue infections | 248 | ||
| 3. Genital infections | 248 | ||
| 4. Other suppurative infections | 248 | ||
| ■ Write a note on nonsuppurative complications produced by Str. pyogenes. | 249 | ||
| Nonsuppurative complications | 249 | ||
| 1. Acute rheumatic fever | 249 | ||
| 2. Acute glomerulonephritis | 249 | ||
| ■ State the procedure followed and examinations performed in the laboratory diagnosis of Str. pyogenes infection. | 249 | ||
| Transport | 249 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 249 | ||
| Culture | 249 | ||
| Biochemical reactions | 249 | ||
| Bacitracin sensitivity | 250 | ||
| Antibiotic sensitivity testing (AST) | 250 | ||
| Ag detection | 250 | ||
| Nucleic acid detection | 250 | ||
| Ab detection | 250 | ||
| ■ What treatment and prophylaxis measures should be taken against Str. pyogenes? | 250 | ||
| ■ Describe in brief group B streptococci and group D streptococci. | 250 | ||
| Group B streptococci | 250 | ||
| Species of medical importance | 250 | ||
| Pathogenicity | 250 | ||
| IV Virology | 419 | ||
| 55 General properties of viruses | 419 | ||
| ■ What does virology deal with? | 421 | ||
| ■ What are viruses? | 421 | ||
| ■ Differentiate between viruses and bacteria. | 421 | ||
| ■ What is the size of viruses and how can it be measured? | 421 | ||
| ■ Describe the structure and chemical nature of a virus. | 421 | ||
| Structure and chemical nature | 421 | ||
| Nucleic acid | 422 | ||
| Protein sheath (capsid) | 422 | ||
| Functions | 422 | ||
| Envelope | 422 | ||
| Functions | 423 | ||
| ■ What shapes of viruses are generally observed? | 423 | ||
| ■ Which are the three types of symmetry observed in viruses? briefly explain the structure of each type and give examples. | 423 | ||
| Icosahedral symmetry | 423 | ||
| Helical symmetry | 424 | ||
| Complex symmetry | 424 | ||
| ■ Discuss susceptibility of viruses to physical and chemical agents. | 425 | ||
| ■ Describe the proteins, lipids and carbohydrates found in viruses. | 425 | ||
| Viral proteins | 425 | ||
| Neuraminidase | 426 | ||
| Viral lipids | 426 | ||
| Viral carbohydrates | 426 | ||
| ■ Explain the viral haemagglutination test. | 426 | ||
| Viral haemagglutination test | 426 | ||
| Procedure | 426 | ||
| Result | 426 | ||
| ■ Describe the process of viral replication. | 427 | ||
| Replication of viruses | 427 | ||
| Adsorption or attachment | 428 | ||
| Penetration | 428 | ||
| Uncoating | 428 | ||
| Biosynthesis | 428 | ||
| Maturation | 429 | ||
| Release | 429 | ||
| ■ What is the ‘eclipse phase’ in the growth cycle of a virus? | 429 | ||
| ■ Describe the abnormal replicative cycles in viruses. | 429 | ||
| Abnormal replicative cycles | 429 | ||
| Incomplete viruses | 429 | ||
| Abortive viral infections | 429 | ||
| Defective viruses | 430 | ||
| Pseudovirions | 430 | ||
| ■ How are viruses cultivated? give a detailed description of each method. | 430 | ||
| Animal inoculation | 430 | ||
| Embryonated eggs | 431 | ||
| Tissue culture (cell lines) | 431 | ||
| Preparation of monolayers | 432 | ||
| Types of cell culture | 433 | ||
| Primary cell cultures | 433 | ||
| V Mycology | 539 | ||
| 71 Introduction to mycology | 539 | ||
| ■ What do mycology and medical mycology deal with? | 541 | ||
| ■ Who is the father of mycology? | 541 | ||
| ■ Comment on fungal infections. | 541 | ||
| ■ What are fungi? | 541 | ||
| ■ What is a hypha and a pseudohypha? differentiate between the two. | 541 | ||
| ■ Describe different types of hyphae with suitable illustrations. | 542 | ||
| Types of hyphae | 542 | ||
| Aseptate and septate hyphae (fig. 71.1) | 542 | ||
| Hyaline and pigmented hyphae | 542 | ||
| Vegetative and aerial hyphae | 542 | ||
| Spiral hypha | 542 | ||
| Racquet hypha | 542 | ||
| Nodular hypha | 542 | ||
| Favic chandelier | 542 | ||
| Pectinate hypha | 542 | ||
| ■ What is mycelium? | 542 | ||
| ■ What are spores? describe different types of spores. | 543 | ||
| Spores | 543 | ||
| Types of spores | 543 | ||
| Asexual spores | 543 | ||
| Conidia | 543 | ||
| Sexual spores | 544 | ||
| ■ What are the differences between fungi and bacteria? | 544 | ||
| ■ Write a note on the morphological classification of fungi. | 544 | ||
| ■ Present the systemic classification of fungi. | 544 | ||
| ■ What factors predispose to fungal infections? | 546 | ||
| ■ Describe the different types of mycoses? | 546 | ||
| ■ Describe in detail the laboratory diagnosis of fungal diseases. | 546 | ||
| Specimens | 546 | ||
| Collection and transport of specimen | 546 | ||
| Processing of specimen | 548 | ||
| Direct microscopy | 548 | ||
| 1. Potassium hydroxide (koh) mount | 548 | ||
| 2. Calcofluor white (CFW) stain | 548 | ||
| 3. India ink/nigrosin wet mount | 548 | ||
| 4. Gram stain | 548 | ||
| 5. Wright’s or giemsa stain | 548 | ||
| 6. Direct immunofluorescence stain | 548 | ||
| 7. Histopathological sections | 548 | ||
| Culture methods | 548 | ||
| Media used | 548 | ||
| Special media | 549 | ||
| Identification | 549 | ||
| Macroscopic appearance of colony | 549 | ||
| Microscopic morphology | 549 | ||
| Slide culture method | 550 | ||
| Corn meal agar culture | 550 | ||
| CHROM agar | 550 | ||
| Dermatophyte identification medium | 550 | ||
| Biochemical and other reactions | 550 | ||
| Ag detection | 550 | ||
| Serological tests | 550 | ||
| Nucleic acid detection | 550 | ||
| Skin test | 551 | ||
| Animal inoculation | 551 | ||
| Antifungal susceptibility testing | 551 | ||
| ■ Name different types of antifungal agents. | 551 | ||
| 72 Superficial mycoses | 552 | ||
| ■ What is superficial mycoses? write a note on superficial fungal infections and their causative agents. | 552 | ||
| ■ Write a note on pityriasis (tinea) versicolor. | 552 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 552 | ||
| VI Parasitology | 595 | ||
| 76 Introduction to parasitology | 595 | ||
| ■ What is parasitology? what does medical parasitology deal with? | 597 | ||
| ■ Define the terms: Parasite and host. | 597 | ||
| ■ Mention the different classes of parasites. | 597 | ||
| ■ Mention the different types of host. | 597 | ||
| ■ Comment on the nomenclature of parasites. | 597 | ||
| ■ Describe in brief the morphological features of protozoan parasites. | 597 | ||
| ■ Comment on trophozoite and cyst stages of protozoan parasites. | 598 | ||
| 1. Trophozoite | 598 | ||
| 2. Cyst stage | 598 | ||
| Classify protozoan parasites. | 598 | ||
| ■ What are helminths? what are different groups of helminths? | 599 | ||
| ■ Write the differences between cestodes, trematodes and nematodes. | 599 | ||
| ■ Write the general features of cestodes. | 599 | ||
| ■ Mention the important cestodes infecting humans. | 600 | ||
| ■ Mention the general features of trematodes. | 600 | ||
| ■ Classify important trematodes that infect humans. | 600 | ||
| ■ Mention the general features of nematodes. | 601 | ||
| ■ Classify nematodes. | 601 | ||
| ■ Enumerate intestinal nematodes found in human beings. | 601 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the medically important tissue nematodes. | 601 | ||
| 77 Medically important amoebae | 602 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the protozoa causing intestinal infections. | 602 | ||
| ■ Discuss in brief the morphology, lifecycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of entamoeba histolytica. | 602 | ||
| Morphology | 602 | ||
| Lifecycle (flowchart 77.1) | 603 | ||
| Pathogenicity | 603 | ||
| Clinical features | 605 | ||
| Laboratory diagnosis | 605 | ||
| Treatment | 605 | ||
| ■ Write a short note on pathogenic free-living amoebae. | 606 | ||
| Pathogenicity | 607 | ||
| VII Clinical Microbiology | 667 | ||
| 85 Septicaemia and bacteraemia | 667 | ||
| ■ Explain septicaemia. | 669 | ||
| ■ Define pyaemia. | 669 | ||
| ■ What is toxaemia? | 669 | ||
| ■ Define bacteraemia. | 669 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the common microorganisms that cause septicaemia and bacteraemia. | 669 | ||
| Bacteria | 669 | ||
| Fungi | 670 | ||
| ■ Briefly discuss the pathogenesis of septicaemia. | 670 | ||
| ■ Mention the clinical features and complications of septicaemia. | 670 | ||
| Clinical features | 670 | ||
| Complications | 670 | ||
| ■ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of septicaemia/bacteraemia. | 671 | ||
| Blood culture | 671 | ||
| Collection of blood | 671 | ||
| Processing of blood culture | 671 | ||
| Castaneda’s method | 671 | ||
| Automated blood culture system | 671 | ||
| Cultures of other specimens | 672 | ||
| Nonculture methods | 672 | ||
| ■ Mention the ways in which septicaemia/bacteraemia can be treated. | 672 | ||
| 86 Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) | 673 | ||
| ■ Explain ‘pyrexia of unknown origin’ (PUO). | 673 | ||
| ■ What are the common causes of PUO? | 673 | ||
| Infectious causes | 673 | ||
| Bacterial causes | 673 | ||
| Viral causes | 673 | ||
| Fungal causes | 673 | ||
| Parasitic causes | 674 | ||
| Noninfectious causes | 674 | ||
| ■ Discuss the pathogenesis of PUO. | 674 | ||
| Pyrogens | 674 | ||
| ■ State the clinical features of PUO. | 675 | ||
| Clinical features | 675 | ||
| ■ Describe the methods used in laboratory diagnosis of PUO. | 675 | ||
| Haematological investigations | 675 | ||
| Biochemical investigations | 675 | ||
| Microbiological investigations | 675 | ||
| 1. Blood culture | 675 | ||
| 2. Urine examination | 675 | ||
| 3. Stool examination | 676 | ||
| 4. Sputum examination | 676 | ||
| Examination of body fluids | 676 | ||
| Serological tests | 676 | ||
| Skin test | 676 | ||
| Animal inoculation | 676 | ||
| Histopathologic examination | 676 | ||
| Radiological investigations | 677 | ||
| ■ How can PUO be treated? | 677 | ||
| 87 Meningitis | 678 | ||
| ■ Define meningitis. | 678 | ||
| ■ What is encephalitis? | 678 | ||
| ■ Describe the different types of meningitis. | 678 | ||
| ■ Mention the most common agents causing meningitis. | 678 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 678 | ||
| Viral agents | 679 | ||
| Fungal agents | 679 | ||
| Parasitic agents | 679 | ||
| ■ Describe the pathogenesis of meningitis. | 679 | ||
| ■ Describe the clinical features of meningitis. | 679 | ||
| Common clinical features of meningitis | 679 | ||
| Complications | 680 | ||
| ■ How can diagnosis of meningitis be made in a laboratory? | 680 | ||
| Collection of specimens | 680 | ||
| Transport of CSF | 680 | ||
| Processing of CSF | 680 | ||
| Rapid diagnostic methods | 680 | ||
| Culture | 681 | ||
| Fungal culture | 681 | ||
| ■ How would you treat meningitis? | 681 | ||
| 88 Respiratory tract infections (RTI) | 682 | ||
| ■ What are respiratory tract infections? comment on their spread. | 682 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the most common aetiological agents of respiratory tract infections. | 682 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 682 | ||
| Viral agents | 682 | ||
| Fungal agents | 683 | ||
| ■ Briefly describe the pathogenesis of respiratory tract infections. | 683 | ||
| ■ What are the clinical features of respiratory tract infections? | 683 | ||
| Upper respiratory tract infections | 683 | ||
| Infection of ear and sinuses | 683 | ||
| Infections of throat and pharynx | 683 | ||
| Lower respiratory tract infections | 684 | ||
| Infections of trachea and bronchi | 684 | ||
| Infections of lungs | 684 | ||
| ■ Explain sore throat. comment on its causes and pathogenesis. | 684 | ||
| Causes | 684 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 684 | ||
| Viral agents | 684 | ||
| Fungal agent | 684 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 684 | ||
| ■ Mention the clinical features of sore throat. | 685 | ||
| ■ Explain pneumonia. which microbial agents are common cause of pneumonia? | 685 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 685 | ||
| Viral agents | 685 | ||
| Fungal agents | 685 | ||
| ■ How is pneumonia transmitted? | 685 | ||
| ■ Describe the clinical features of pneumonia. | 686 | ||
| Characteristic symptoms of pneumonia | 686 | ||
| Clinical types | 686 | ||
| ■ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of respiratory tract infections. | 686 | ||
| Collection of specimens | 686 | ||
| Transport of specimens | 686 | ||
| Processing of specimen | 686 | ||
| Direct examination | 686 | ||
| Culture | 687 | ||
| Ag Detection | 687 | ||
| Ab Detection | 687 | ||
| Serology | 688 | ||
| Other techniques | 688 | ||
| ■ Suggest treatment for respiratory tract infections. | 688 | ||
| 89 Diarrhoeal diseases | 689 | ||
| ■ Define the following terms: (a) diarrhoea, (b) gastroenteritis, (c) dysentery, (e) traveller’s diarrhoea, and (f) food poisoning. | 689 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the most common aetiological agents that cause diarrhoea. | 689 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 689 | ||
| Viral agents | 689 | ||
| Parasitic agents | 690 | ||
| Fungal agent | 690 | ||
| ■ Discuss the pathogenesis of diarrhoeal diseases. | 690 | ||
| 1. Toxin type (noninvasive type) | 690 | ||
| 2. Growth within or close to intestinal mucosal cells | 690 | ||
| 3. Invasion of the mucosal epithelium causing cellular destruction | 690 | ||
| 4. Adhesion to intestinal mucosa, interfering absorption and secretion | 690 | ||
| ■ Mention the clinical features of diarrhoeal diseases. | 690 | ||
| ■ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of diarrhoeal diseases. | 690 | ||
| Collection of specimen | 690 | ||
| Transport of specimen | 691 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 691 | ||
| Culture | 691 | ||
| Identification | 691 | ||
| Immunological tests | 691 | ||
| ■ How can diarrhoeal diseases be treated? | 692 | ||
| ■ What is food poisoning? | 692 | ||
| ■ Classify food poisoning. | 692 | ||
| Classification based on mechanism of infection | 692 | ||
| Classification based on causative agents | 693 | ||
| ■ Mention the causes of food poisoning. | 693 | ||
| Gram-positive cocci | 693 | ||
| Gram-positive spore—forming bacilli | 693 | ||
| Gram-negative bacilli | 693 | ||
| ■ Discuss the pathogenesis of food poisoning. | 693 | ||
| ■ What are the clinical features of food poisoning? | 694 | ||
| ■ What basic information is required for investigating a case of food poisoning? mention the specimens and methods used ... | 694 | ||
| Methods for detecting causative agents | 694 | ||
| Microscopy | 694 | ||
| Culture | 694 | ||
| Serology | 694 | ||
| ■ What precautions should be taken to prevent food poisoning? | 694 | ||
| 90 Urinary tract infections (UTI) | 695 | ||
| ■ Define urinary tract infection. | 695 | ||
| ■ Describe the different types of urinary tract infections. | 695 | ||
| ■ Mention the most common aetiological agents of urinary tract infections. | 695 | ||
| Bacterial agents | 695 | ||
| Fungal agents | 695 | ||
| ■ Discuss the pathogenesis of urinary tract infections. | 696 | ||
| ■ Mention the clinical features and complications of urinary tract infections. | 696 | ||
| Clinical features | 696 | ||
| 1. Asymptomatic infection or covert bacteriuria | 696 | ||
| 2. Symptomatic infection | 696 | ||
| ■ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections. | 696 | ||
| Collection of specimen | 696 | ||
| 1. Suprapubic aspiration | 697 | ||
| 2. Catheterization | 697 | ||
| 3. Clean-catch midstream urine collection | 697 | ||
| Transport and storage | 697 | ||
| Processing of specimen | 697 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 697 | ||
| Chemical methods | 697 | ||
| Enzymatic methods | 697 | ||
| Culture | 698 | ||
| Quantitative methods | 698 | ||
| Semiquantitative methods | 698 | ||
| Other screening methods | 698 | ||
| Interpretation of colony count | 698 | ||
| Identification of the bacteria | 698 | ||
| Antimicrobial susceptibility testing | 699 | ||
| Other investigations | 699 | ||
| 1. Immunofluorescence test | 699 | ||
| 2. Detection of antibodies | 699 | ||
| ■ How should urinary tract infections be treated? | 699 | ||
| 91 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) | 700 | ||
| ■ Explain sexually transmitted diseases. | 700 | ||
| ■ Name sexually transmitted diseases along with their causal agents. | 700 | ||
| ■ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of STDs. | 701 | ||
| Collection of specimens | 701 | ||
| Transport of specimens | 701 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 701 | ||
| Culture | 701 | ||
| Ag Detection | 702 | ||
| Ab Detection | 702 | ||
| Other tests | 702 | ||
| ■ Write a short note on treatment of STDs. | 702 | ||
| Treatment | 702 | ||
| ■ Write a note on nongonococcal urethritis. | 702 | ||
| Aetiology | 702 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 703 | ||
| Clinical features | 703 | ||
| Laboratory diagnosis | 703 | ||
| Treatment | 703 | ||
| 92 Hospital acquired infections | 704 | ||
| ■ What are hospital infections? | 704 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the most common microorganisms causing hospital infections. | 704 | ||
| Bacteria | 704 | ||
| Aerobic bacteria | 704 | ||
| Anaerobic bacteria | 704 | ||
| Viruses | 705 | ||
| Fungi | 705 | ||
| Parasites | 705 | ||
| ■ What are the sources of hospital infections? | 705 | ||
| ■ How are hospital infections transmitted? | 706 | ||
| ■ Describe the common types of hospital infections. | 706 | ||
| 1. Urinary tract infections | 706 | ||
| 2. Respiratory tract infections | 707 | ||
| 3. Wound and soft tissue infections | 707 | ||
| 4. Gastro-intestinal infections | 707 | ||
| 5. Other infections | 707 | ||
| ■ Comment on the laboratory diagnosis of hospital acquired infections. | 707 | ||
| ■ Suggest the methods for prevention and control of hospital-acquired infections. | 708 | ||
| Prevention | 708 | ||
| Control | 708 | ||
| Functions of HICT | 708 | ||
| 93 Zoonoses | 710 | ||
| ■ Define zoonoses. mention the occupational groups at risk. | 710 | ||
| ■ Mention the sources and routes of zoonosis. | 710 | ||
| ■ How are zoonotic diseases transmitted? | 710 | ||
| ■ Classify zoonoses on the basis of the lifecycle of the infecting organism. | 711 | ||
| 1. Direct zoonoses | 711 | ||
| 2. Cyclozoonoses | 711 | ||
| 3. Metazoonoses | 711 | ||
| 4. Saprozoonoses | 711 | ||
| ■ Classify zoonoses on the basis of aetiological agents. name these agents, the diseases caused by them and the animals ... | 711 | ||
| ■ Write a note on the laboratory diagnosis of zoonoses. | 711 | ||
| Collection of specimens | 711 | ||
| Transport of specimen | 712 | ||
| Microscopic examination | 712 | ||
| Culture | 713 | ||
| Serological methods | 713 | ||
| Skin test | 713 | ||
| Treatment | 713 | ||
| 94 Bacteriology of water, milk and air | 714 | ||
| ■ Discuss the role of water in transmitting infection. | 714 | ||
| ■ What is meant by safe drinking water? | 714 | ||
| ■ Write a short note on bacterial flora of water. | 714 | ||
| 1. Natural water bacteria | 714 | ||
| 2. Soil bacteria | 715 | ||
| 3. Sewage bacteria | 715 | ||
| ■ Name the disease-causing pathogens present in polluted water. | 715 | ||
| 1. Bacteria | 715 | ||
| 2. Viruses | 715 | ||
| 3. Protozoa | 715 | ||
| 4. Helminths | 716 | ||
| ■ Comment on indicator bacteria. | 716 | ||
| ■ How is bacteriological examination of water carried out? | 716 | ||
| Collection of water | 716 | ||
| Type of water to be sampled | 716 | ||
| Sample from tap | 716 | ||
| Sample from reservoir | 717 | ||
| Sample from a well | 717 | ||
| Transport | 717 | ||
| Methods of analysis | 717 | ||
| Multiple tube method | 717 | ||
| Membrane filter method | 718 | ||
| Examination of specific pathogens | 718 | ||
| ■ Mention the types of bacteria found in milk. | 719 | ||
| ■ Enumerate the milk borne diseases and infections. | 719 | ||
| 1. Infections of animals transmitted to man | 719 | ||
| 2. Infection due to ingestion of milk contaminated with excreta of small mammals | 720 | ||
| 3.\tinfections primarily of man transmitted through milk | 720 | ||
| ■ Describe the tests used in bacteriological examination of milk. | 720 | ||
| 1. Viable count | 720 | ||
| 2. Coliform count | 720 | ||
| 3. Methylene blue reduction test | 720 | ||
| 4. Resazurin test | 721 | ||
| 5. Phosphatase test | 721 | ||
| 6. Turbidity test | 721 | ||
| ■ Describe the tests used for examining specific pathogens present in milk. | 721 | ||
| 1. Test for tubercle bacilli | 721 | ||
| 2. Tests for brucella bacilli | 721 | ||
| ■ Discuss bacteriology of air. | 721 | ||
| ■ Give the name of important setups where bacteriological examination of air is required? | 722 | ||
| ■ Describe the methods for carrying out bacterial examination of air and environmental dust. | 722 | ||
| Bacteriological examination of air | 722 | ||
| Settle plate method (sedimentation method) | 722 | ||
| Slit sampler method | 722 | ||
| Air contamination standards | 723 | ||
| Bacteriological examination of environmental dust | 723 | ||
| Sweep plate | 723 | ||
| Dust sampling | 723 | ||
| Index | 725 | ||
| A | 725 | ||
| B | 725 | ||
| C | 726 | ||
| D | 727 | ||
| E | 727 | ||
| F | 728 | ||
| G | 728 | ||
| H | 728 | ||
| I | 729 | ||
| J | 730 | ||
| K | 730 | ||
| L | 730 | ||
| M | 730 | ||
| N | 731 | ||
| O | 732 | ||
| P | 732 | ||
| Q | 733 | ||
| R | 733 | ||
| S | 733 | ||
| T | 734 | ||
| U | 735 | ||
| V | 735 | ||
| W | 735 | ||
| X | 736 | ||
| Y | 736 | ||
| Z | 736 |