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Abstract
For courses in Chemistry.
Building 21st Century Data Analysis and Problem-Solving Skills in Modern Chemistry
The Fourth Edition of Niva Tro’s Chemistry: A Molecular Approach reinforces students’ development of 21st century skills including data interpretation and analysis, problem solving and quantitative reasoning, applying conceptual understanding to new situations and peer-to-peer collaboration.
Nivaldo Tro presents chemistry visually through multi-level images–macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic representations–helping students see the connections between the world they see around them (macroscopic), the atoms and molecules that compose the world (molecular), and the formulas they write down on paper (symbolic). The benefits of Dr. Tro’s problem-solving approach are reinforced through digital, Interactive Worked Examples that provide students with an office-hour type of environment and expanded coverage on the latest developments in chemistry. New Key Concept Videos explain difficult concepts while new end-of-chapter problems including Group Work questions and Data Interpretation and Analysis questions engage students in applying their understanding of chemistry. The revision has been constructed to easily incorporate material for instructors and students to engage in Before, During, and After class activities.
MasteringChemistry™ is not included. Students, if MasteringChemistry is a recommended/mandatory component of the course, please ask your instructor for the correct ISBN and course ID. MasteringChemistry should only be purchased when required by an instructor. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information.
MasteringChemistry from Pearson is the leading online homework, tutorial, and assessment system, designed to improve results by engaging students before, during, and after class with powerful content. Instructors ensure students arrive ready to learn by assigning educationally effective content before class, and encourage critical thinking and retention with in-class resources such as Learning Catalytics™.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title Page | 1 | ||
| Copyright Page | 2 | ||
| ABOUT THE AUTHOR | 3 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 22 | ||
| Contents | 7 | ||
| PREFACE | 20 | ||
| 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving | 38 | ||
| 1.1 Atoms and Molecules | 39 | ||
| 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge | 41 | ||
| The Nature of Science: Thomas S. Kuhn and Scientific | 43 | ||
| 1.3 The Classification of Matter | 43 | ||
| The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas | 44 | ||
| Classifying Matter according to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures | 45 | ||
| Separating Mixtures | 46 | ||
| 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties | 47 | ||
| 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change | 50 | ||
| 1.6 The Units of Measurement | 51 | ||
| Standard Units | 51 | ||
| The Meter: A Measure of Length | 52 | ||
| The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass | 52 | ||
| The Second: A Measure of Time | 52 | ||
| The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature | 53 | ||
| Prefix Multipliers | 55 | ||
| Derived Units: Volume and Density | 55 | ||
| Calculating Density | 57 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Bone Density | 58 | ||
| 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement | 58 | ||
| Counting Significant Figures | 60 | ||
| Exact Numbers | 60 | ||
| Significant Figures in Calculations | 61 | ||
| Precision and Accuracy | 63 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Integrity in Data Gathering | 64 | ||
| 1.8 Solving Chemical Problems | 64 | ||
| Converting from One Unit to Another | 64 | ||
| General Problem-Solving Strategy | 66 | ||
| Units Raised to a Power | 68 | ||
| Order-of-Magnitude Estimations | 69 | ||
| Problems Involving an Equation | 70 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 71 | ||
| Key Terms | 72 | ||
| Key Concepts | 73 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 73 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 74 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 74 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 74 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 78 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 79 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 80 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 80 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 81 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 81 | ||
| 2 Atoms and Elements | 82 | ||
| 2.1 Brownian Motion: Atoms Comfirmed | 83 | ||
| 2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter | 85 | ||
| 2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It | 85 | ||
| The Law of Conservation of Mass | 85 | ||
| The Law of Definite Proportions | 86 | ||
| The Law of Multiple Proportions | 87 | ||
| John Dalton and the Atomic Theory | 88 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Atoms and Humans | 88 | ||
| 2.4 The Discovery of the Electron | 89 | ||
| Cathode Rays | 89 | ||
| Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron | 90 | ||
| 2.5 The Structure of the Atom | 91 | ||
| 2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms | 93 | ||
| Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons | 94 | ||
| Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies | 95 | ||
| Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons | 97 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Where Did Elements Come From? | 98 | ||
| 2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table | 98 | ||
| Modern Periodic Table Organization | 100 | ||
| Ions and the Periodic Table | 102 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: The Elements of Life | 103 | ||
| 2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms | 103 | ||
| Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules | 104 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Evolving Atomic Masses | 106 | ||
| 2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them | 107 | ||
| The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” | 107 | ||
| Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms | 108 | ||
| Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) | 109 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 112 | ||
| Key Terms | 113 | ||
| Key Concepts | 114 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 114 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 115 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 115 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 116 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 119 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 120 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 121 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 121 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 122 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 123 | ||
| 3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations | 124 | ||
| 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water | 125 | ||
| 3.2 Chemical Bonds | 127 | ||
| Ionic Bonds | 127 | ||
| Covalent Bonds | 128 | ||
| 3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models | 128 | ||
| Types of Chemical Formulas | 128 | ||
| Molecular Models | 130 | ||
| 3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds | 130 | ||
| 3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names | 134 | ||
| Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds | 134 | ||
| Naming Ionic Compounds | 135 | ||
| Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation | 136 | ||
| Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation | 137 | ||
| Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions | 138 | ||
| Hydrated Ionic Compounds | 139 | ||
| 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names | 139 | ||
| Naming Molecular Compounds | 140 | ||
| Naming Acids | 141 | ||
| Naming Binary Acids | 141 | ||
| Naming Oxyacids | 142 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: Acid Rain | 142 | ||
| 3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature | 143 | ||
| 3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds | 145 | ||
| Molar Mass of a Compound | 145 | ||
| Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing | 145 | ||
| 3.9 Composition of Compounds | 147 | ||
| Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor | 148 | ||
| Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas | 150 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Methylmercury in Fish | 152 | ||
| 3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data | 152 | ||
| Determining Molecular Formulas for Compounds | 154 | ||
| Combustion Analysis | 155 | ||
| 3.11 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations | 157 | ||
| 3.12 Organic Compounds | 161 | ||
| Hydrocarbons | 162 | ||
| Functionalized Hydrocarbons | 163 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-assessment Quiz | 165 | ||
| Key Terms | 165 | ||
| Key Concepts | 166 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 166 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 167 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 167 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 168 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 172 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 173 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 173 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 173 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 174 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 174 | ||
| 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions | 176 | ||
| 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels | 177 | ||
| 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? | 179 | ||
| Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients | 179 | ||
| Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions | 179 | ||
| Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions | 180 | ||
| 4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield | 183 | ||
| Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield | 184 | ||
| Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses | 185 | ||
| 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry | 189 | ||
| Solution Concentration | 189 | ||
| Using Molarity in Calculations | 191 | ||
| Solution Dilution | 192 | ||
| Solution Stoichiometry | 194 | ||
| 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility | 196 | ||
| Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions | 196 | ||
| The Solubility of Ionic Compounds | 198 | ||
| 4.6 Precipitation Reactions | 200 | ||
| 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations | 204 | ||
| 4.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions | 205 | ||
| Acid–Base Reactions | 206 | ||
| Gas-Evolution Reactions | 211 | ||
| 4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions | 213 | ||
| Oxidation States | 214 | ||
| Identifying Redox Reactions | 216 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Bleached Blonde | 219 | ||
| Combustion Reactions | 219 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-assessment Quiz | 220 | ||
| Key Terms | 221 | ||
| Key Concepts | 222 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 223 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 223 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 224 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 224 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 228 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 230 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 230 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 231 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 232 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 233 | ||
| 5 Gases | 234 | ||
| 5.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of Decompression | 235 | ||
| 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions | 236 | ||
| Pressure Units | 237 | ||
| The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory | 238 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Blood Pressure | 239 | ||
| 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law | 239 | ||
| Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure | 240 | ||
| Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature | 242 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Extra-Long Snorkels | 243 | ||
| Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) | 245 | ||
| 5.4 The Ideal Gas Law | 246 | ||
| 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas | 249 | ||
| Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure | 249 | ||
| Density of a Gas | 250 | ||
| Molar Mass of a Gas | 251 | ||
| 5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures | 252 | ||
| Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures | 255 | ||
| Collecting Gases over Water | 257 | ||
| 5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited | 259 | ||
| Molar Volume and Stoichiometry | 260 | ||
| 5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases | 262 | ||
| How Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains Pressure and the Simple Gas Laws | 263 | ||
| Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law | 264 | ||
| Temperature and Molecular Velocities | 265 | ||
| 5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases | 268 | ||
| 5.10 real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces | 270 | ||
| The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles | 271 | ||
| The Effect of Intermolecular Forces | 272 | ||
| Van der Waals Equation | 273 | ||
| Real Gases | 273 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 274 | ||
| Key Terms | 275 | ||
| Key Concepts | 275 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 276 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 276 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 277 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 278 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 281 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 283 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 283 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 284 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 284 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 285 | ||
| 6 Thermochemistry | 286 | ||
| 6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers | 287 | ||
| 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions | 288 | ||
| Types of Energy | 288 | ||
| Energy Conservation and Energy Transfer | 289 | ||
| Units of Energy | 289 | ||
| 6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch | 291 | ||
| Internal Energy | 291 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Redheffer’s Perpetual Motion Machine | 291 | ||
| Heat and Work | 294 | ||
| 6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work | 296 | ||
| Heat | 296 | ||
| Work: Pressure–Volume Work | 300 | ||
| 6.5 Measuring & | 302 | ||
| 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure | 305 | ||
| Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View | 307 | ||
| Stoichiometry Involving & | 307 | ||
| 6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring & | 308 | ||
| 6.8 Relationships Involving & | 310 | ||
| 6.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation | 313 | ||
| Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes | 313 | ||
| Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction | 315 | ||
| 6.10 Energy Use and the Environment | 318 | ||
| Energy Consumption | 318 | ||
| Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil Fuel Use | 319 | ||
| Air Pollution | 319 | ||
| Global Climate Change | 320 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: Renewable Energy | 322 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 323 | ||
| Key Terms | 324 | ||
| Key Concepts | 324 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 325 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 325 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 326 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 327 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 330 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 331 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 331 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 332 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 332 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 333 | ||
| 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom | 334 | ||
| 7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat | 335 | ||
| 7.2 The Nature of Light | 336 | ||
| The Wave Nature of Light | 337 | ||
| The Electromagnetic Spectrum | 339 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Radiation Treatment for Cancer | 341 | ||
| Interference and Diffraction | 341 | ||
| The Particle Nature of Light | 343 | ||
| 7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model | 346 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Atomic Spectroscopy, a Bar Code for Atoms | 348 | ||
| 7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy | 349 | ||
| The de Broglie Wavelength | 351 | ||
| The Uncertainty Principle | 352 | ||
| Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps | 353 | ||
| 7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom | 355 | ||
| Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom | 355 | ||
| Atomic Spectroscopy Explained | 358 | ||
| 7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals | 361 | ||
| s Orbitals (l=0) | 361 | ||
| p Orbitals (l=1) | 364 | ||
| d Orbitals (l=2) | 364 | ||
| f Orbitals (l=3) | 364 | ||
| The Phase of Orbitals | 365 | ||
| The Shape of Atoms | 366 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 366 | ||
| Key Terms | 367 | ||
| Key Concepts | 367 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 368 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 368 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 368 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 369 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 370 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 371 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 372 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 372 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 372 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 373 | ||
| 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements | 374 | ||
| 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission | 375 | ||
| 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table | 376 | ||
| 8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals | 377 | ||
| Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle | 378 | ||
| Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms | 379 | ||
| Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms | 382 | ||
| 8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table | 385 | ||
| Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table | 386 | ||
| Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table | 387 | ||
| The Transition and Inner Transition Elements | 388 | ||
| 8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model | 389 | ||
| 8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge | 390 | ||
| Effective Nuclear Charge | 391 | ||
| Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements | 393 | ||
| 8.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy | 395 | ||
| Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions | 395 | ||
| Ionic Radii | 397 | ||
| Ionization Energy | 399 | ||
| Trends in First Ionization Energy | 399 | ||
| Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy | 401 | ||
| Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies | 402 | ||
| 8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character | 403 | ||
| Electron Affinity | 403 | ||
| Metallic Character | 404 | ||
| 8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behavior: The Alkali Metals, the Halogens, and the Noble Gases | 407 | ||
| The Alkali Metals (Group 1A) | 407 | ||
| The Halogens (Group 7A) | 408 | ||
| The Noble Gases (Group 8A) | 409 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 410 | ||
| Key Terms | 411 | ||
| Key Concepts | 412 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 412 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 413 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 413 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 414 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 416 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 417 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 417 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 418 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 418 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 419 | ||
| 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model | 420 | ||
| 9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs | 421 | ||
| 9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds | 422 | ||
| 9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots | 424 | ||
| 9.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies | 425 | ||
| Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer | 425 | ||
| Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story | 426 | ||
| The Born–Haber Cycle | 426 | ||
| Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size | 429 | ||
| Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge | 429 | ||
| Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality | 430 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Ionic Compounds in Medicine | 431 | ||
| 9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures | 432 | ||
| Single Covalent Bonds | 432 | ||
| Double and Triple Covalent Bonds | 432 | ||
| Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality | 433 | ||
| 9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity | 434 | ||
| Electronegativity | 435 | ||
| Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character | 436 | ||
| 9.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions | 438 | ||
| Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds | 438 | ||
| Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions | 440 | ||
| 9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge | 440 | ||
| Resonance | 440 | ||
| Formal Charge | 442 | ||
| 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets | 445 | ||
| Odd-Electron Species | 446 | ||
| Incomplete Octets | 446 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner | 447 | ||
| Expanded Octets | 448 | ||
| 9.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths | 449 | ||
| Bond Energy | 450 | ||
| Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions | 451 | ||
| Bond Lengths | 452 | ||
| 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model | 453 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: The Lewis Structure of Ozone | 454 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 455 | ||
| Key Terms | 456 | ||
| Key Concepts | 456 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 457 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 457 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 458 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 459 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 460 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 462 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 462 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 462 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 463 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 463 | ||
| 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory | 464 | ||
| 10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape | 465 | ||
| 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes | 466 | ||
| Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry | 467 | ||
| Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry | 467 | ||
| Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry | 467 | ||
| Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry | 469 | ||
| Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry | 469 | ||
| 10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs | 470 | ||
| Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 470 | ||
| Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 472 | ||
| Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 473 | ||
| 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries | 475 | ||
| Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper | 477 | ||
| Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules | 477 | ||
| 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity | 478 | ||
| Vector Addition | 480 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: How Soap Works | 482 | ||
| 10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond | 483 | ||
| 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals | 485 | ||
| sp[Sup(3)] Hybridization | 486 | ||
| sp[Sup(2)] Hybridization and Double Bonds | 488 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: The Chemistry of Vision | 492 | ||
| sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds | 492 | ||
| sp[Sup(3)] d and sp[Sup(3)] d[Sup(2)] Hybridization | 494 | ||
| Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes | 495 | ||
| 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization | 498 | ||
| Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAOs) | 499 | ||
| Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules | 503 | ||
| Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules | 508 | ||
| Polyatomic Molecules | 510 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 511 | ||
| Key Terms | 512 | ||
| Key Concepts | 512 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 512 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 513 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 513 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 514 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 516 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 518 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 519 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 519 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 520 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 520 | ||
| 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces | 522 | ||
| 11.1 Water, No Gravity | 523 | ||
| 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison | 524 | ||
| Differences between States of Matter | 524 | ||
| Changes between States | 526 | ||
| 11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together | 527 | ||
| Dispersion Force | 528 | ||
| Dipole–Dipole Force | 530 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonding | 533 | ||
| Ion–Dipole Force | 535 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA | 536 | ||
| 11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action | 537 | ||
| Surface Tension | 537 | ||
| Viscosity | 539 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Viscosity and Motor Oil | 539 | ||
| Capillary Action | 539 | ||
| 11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure | 540 | ||
| The Process of Vaporization | 540 | ||
| The Energetics of Vaporization | 541 | ||
| Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium | 543 | ||
| The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter | 549 | ||
| 11.6 Sublimation and Fusion | 550 | ||
| Sublimation | 550 | ||
| Fusion | 551 | ||
| Energetics of Melting and Freezing | 551 | ||
| 11.7 Heating Curve for Water | 552 | ||
| 11.8 Phase Diagrams | 555 | ||
| The Major Features of a Phase Diagram | 555 | ||
| Navigation within a Phase Diagram | 556 | ||
| The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances | 557 | ||
| 11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance | 558 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: Water Pollution | 559 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 560 | ||
| Key Terms | 561 | ||
| Key Concepts | 561 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 562 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 562 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 562 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 563 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 566 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 566 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 567 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 567 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 568 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 569 | ||
| 12 Solids and Modern Materials | 570 | ||
| 12.1 Friday Night Experiments: The Discovery of Graphene | 571 | ||
| 12.2 X-Ray Crystallography | 572 | ||
| 12.3 Unit Cells and Basic Structures | 575 | ||
| Cubic Unit Cells | 575 | ||
| Closest-Packed Structures | 581 | ||
| 12.4 The Fundamental Types of Crystalline Solids | 582 | ||
| Molecular Solids | 583 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Chocolate, An Edible Material | 584 | ||
| Ionic Solids | 585 | ||
| Atomic Solids | 585 | ||
| 12.5 The Structures of Ionic Solids | 586 | ||
| 12.6 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates | 588 | ||
| Carbon | 588 | ||
| Silicates | 591 | ||
| 12.7 Ceramics, Cement, and Glass | 591 | ||
| Ceramics | 591 | ||
| Cement | 592 | ||
| Glass | 593 | ||
| 12.8 Semiconductors and Band Theory | 593 | ||
| Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands | 593 | ||
| Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors | 595 | ||
| 12.9 Polymers and Plastics | 595 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Kevlar | 598 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 598 | ||
| Key Terms | 599 | ||
| Key Concepts | 600 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 600 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 600 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 601 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 601 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 604 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 605 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 605 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 606 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 606 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 607 | ||
| 13 Solutions | 608 | ||
| 13.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater | 609 | ||
| 13.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility | 611 | ||
| Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy | 612 | ||
| The Effect of Intermolecular Forces | 612 | ||
| 13.3 Energetics of Solution Formation | 615 | ||
| Energy Changes in Solution Formation | 616 | ||
| Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration | 617 | ||
| 13.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility | 619 | ||
| The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids | 620 | ||
| Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water | 621 | ||
| 13.5 Expressing Solution Concentration | 623 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: Lake Nyos | 624 | ||
| Molarity | 624 | ||
| Molality | 626 | ||
| Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume | 626 | ||
| Using Parts by Mass (or Parts by Volume) in Calculations | 626 | ||
| Mole Fraction and Mole Percent | 627 | ||
| Chemistry in the Environment: The Dirty Dozen | 628 | ||
| 13.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure | 631 | ||
| Vapor Pressure Lowering | 631 | ||
| Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute | 635 | ||
| Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation | 638 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Antifreeze in Frogs | 641 | ||
| Osmotic Pressure | 641 | ||
| 13.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions | 643 | ||
| Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure | 644 | ||
| Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions | 645 | ||
| 13.8 Colloids | 646 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 649 | ||
| Key Terms | 650 | ||
| Key Concepts | 650 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 651 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 651 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 652 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 652 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 656 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 657 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 657 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 658 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 658 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 659 | ||
| 14 Chemical Kinetics | 660 | ||
| 14.1 Catching Lizards | 661 | ||
| 14.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction | 662 | ||
| Definition of Reaction Rate | 662 | ||
| Measuring Reaction Rates | 665 | ||
| 14.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate | 667 | ||
| The Three Common Reaction Orders (n= 0, 1, and 2) | 667 | ||
| Determining the Order of a Reaction | 668 | ||
| Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants | 670 | ||
| 14.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time | 672 | ||
| The Integrated Rate Law | 672 | ||
| The Half-Life of a Reaction | 676 | ||
| 14.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate | 680 | ||
| The Arrhenius Equation | 680 | ||
| The Activation Energy, Frequency Factor, and Exponential Factor | 681 | ||
| Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy | 682 | ||
| The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor | 685 | ||
| 14.6 Reaction Mechanisms | 686 | ||
| Rate Laws for Elementary Steps | 687 | ||
| Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws | 688 | ||
| Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step | 689 | ||
| 14.7 Catalysis | 691 | ||
| Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis | 693 | ||
| Enzymes: Biological Catalysts | 694 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role of Chymotrypsin in Digestion | 696 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 697 | ||
| Key Terms | 699 | ||
| Key Concepts | 699 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 700 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 700 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 701 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 701 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 706 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 708 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 709 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 710 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 710 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 711 | ||
| 15 Chemical Equilibrium | 712 | ||
| 15.1 fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium | 713 | ||
| 15.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium | 715 | ||
| 15.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K) | 718 | ||
| Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions | 718 | ||
| The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant | 719 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Life and Equilibrium | 720 | ||
| Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation | 721 | ||
| 15.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure | 722 | ||
| 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids | 725 | ||
| 15.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations | 726 | ||
| 15.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change | 729 | ||
| 15.8 finding Equilibrium Concentrations | 731 | ||
| Relationship Between K[Sub(p)] and K[Sub(c)] | 723 | ||
| Units of K | 724 | ||
| Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products | 732 | ||
| Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures | 733 | ||
| Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems | 737 | ||
| 15.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances | 741 | ||
| The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium | 742 | ||
| The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium | 744 | ||
| The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium | 746 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 748 | ||
| Key Terms | 749 | ||
| Key Concepts | 749 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 750 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 750 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 751 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 752 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 755 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 756 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 757 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 757 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 758 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 759 | ||
| 16 Acids and Bases | 760 | ||
| 16.1 Heartburn | 761 | ||
| 16.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases | 762 | ||
| 16.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases | 764 | ||
| The Arrhenius Definition | 764 | ||
| The Brønsted–Lowry Definition | 765 | ||
| 16.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)] | 767 | ||
| Strong Acids | 767 | ||
| Weak Acids | 768 | ||
| The Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)]) | 769 | ||
| 16.5 Autoionization of Water and pH | 770 | ||
| The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity | 772 | ||
| pOH and Other p Scales | 773 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Ulcers | 774 | ||
| 16.6 Finding the [H[Sub(3)]O[Sup(+)]] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions | 775 | ||
| Strong Acids | 775 | ||
| Weak Acids | 775 | ||
| Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid | 780 | ||
| Mixtures of Acids | 781 | ||
| 16.7 Base Solutions | 784 | ||
| Strong Bases | 784 | ||
| Weak Bases | 784 | ||
| Finding the [OH[Sup(-)]] and pH of Basic Solutions | 786 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: What’s in My Antacid? | 788 | ||
| 16.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts | 788 | ||
| Anions as Weak Bases | 789 | ||
| Cations as Weak Acids | 792 | ||
| Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral | 793 | ||
| 16.9 Polyprotic Acids | 795 | ||
| Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions | 796 | ||
| Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution | 798 | ||
| 16.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure | 800 | ||
| Binary Acids | 800 | ||
| Oxyacids | 801 | ||
| 16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases | 802 | ||
| Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids | 802 | ||
| Cations That Act as Lewis Acids | 803 | ||
| 16.12 Acid Rain | 803 | ||
| Effects of Acid Rain | 804 | ||
| Acid Rain Legislation | 805 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 805 | ||
| Key Terms | 806 | ||
| Key Concepts | 806 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 807 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 808 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 808 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 809 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 812 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 813 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 814 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 814 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 814 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 815 | ||
| 17 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium | 816 | ||
| 17.1 The Danger of Antifreeze | 817 | ||
| 17.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change | 818 | ||
| Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution | 820 | ||
| The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation | 821 | ||
| Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution | 824 | ||
| Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid | 828 | ||
| 17.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity | 829 | ||
| Relative Amounts of Acid and Base | 829 | ||
| Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base | 830 | ||
| Buffer Range | 831 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Buffer Effectiveness in Human Blood | 832 | ||
| Buffer Capacity | 832 | ||
| 17.4 Titrations and pH Curves | 833 | ||
| The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base | 834 | ||
| The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base | 838 | ||
| The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid | 843 | ||
| The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid | 843 | ||
| Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors | 844 | ||
| 17.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant | 847 | ||
| K[Sub(sp)] and Molar Solubility | 847 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Hard Water | 849 | ||
| K[Sub(sp)] and Relative Solubility | 850 | ||
| The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility | 850 | ||
| The Effect of pH on Solubility | 852 | ||
| 17.6 Precipitation | 853 | ||
| Selective Precipitation | 854 | ||
| 17.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis | 856 | ||
| Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides | 857 | ||
| Group 2: Acid-Insoluble Sulfides | 857 | ||
| Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides and Hydroxides | 858 | ||
| Group 4: Insoluble Phosphates | 858 | ||
| Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH[Sub(4)][Sup(+)] | 858 | ||
| 17.8 Complex Ion Equilibria | 859 | ||
| The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility | 861 | ||
| The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides | 862 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 863 | ||
| Key Terms | 864 | ||
| Key Concepts | 864 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 865 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 865 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 866 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 867 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 872 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 873 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 873 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 874 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 874 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 875 | ||
| 18 Free Energy and Thermodynamics | 876 | ||
| 18.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even | 877 | ||
| 18.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes | 879 | ||
| 18.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics | 881 | ||
| Entropy | 882 | ||
| The Entropy Change upon the Expansion of an Ideal Gas | 884 | ||
| 18.4 Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes | 886 | ||
| Entropy and State Change: The Concept | 887 | ||
| Entropy and State Changes: The Calculation | 888 | ||
| 18.5 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings | 890 | ||
| The Temperature Dependence of & | 891 | ||
| Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings | 892 | ||
| 18.6 Gibbs Free Energy | 893 | ||
| The Effect of & | 894 | ||
| 18.7 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating & | 897 | ||
| Defining Standard States and Standard Entropy Changes | 897 | ||
| Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics | 897 | ||
| Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (& | 901 | ||
| 18.8 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating & | 901 | ||
| Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with & | 902 | ||
| Calculating & | 903 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous | 905 | ||
| Calculating & | 905 | ||
| Why Free Energy Is “Free” | 906 | ||
| 18.9 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between & | 908 | ||
| Standard versus Nonstandard States | 908 | ||
| The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions | 908 | ||
| 18.10 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating & | 911 | ||
| The Relationship between & | 911 | ||
| The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant | 913 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 914 | ||
| Key Terms | 915 | ||
| Key Concepts | 915 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 916 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 916 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 917 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 918 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 921 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 922 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 923 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 923 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 924 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 925 | ||
| 19 Electrochemistry | 926 | ||
| 19.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid | 927 | ||
| 19.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations | 928 | ||
| 19.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions | 931 | ||
| The Voltaic Cell | 932 | ||
| Current and Potential Difference | 933 | ||
| Anode, Cathode, and Salt Bridge | 934 | ||
| Electrochemical Cell Notation | 935 | ||
| 19.4 Standard Electrode Potentials | 936 | ||
| Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction | 940 | ||
| Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid | 943 | ||
| 19.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant | 943 | ||
| The Relationship Between & | 944 | ||
| The Relationship between E°[Sub(cell)] and K | 946 | ||
| 19.6 Cell Potential and Concentration | 947 | ||
| Cell Potential under Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation | 947 | ||
| Concentration Cells | 950 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: Concentration Cells in Human Nerve Cells | 952 | ||
| 19.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity | 952 | ||
| Dry-Cell Batteries | 952 | ||
| Lead–Acid Storage Batteries | 953 | ||
| Other Rechargeable Batteries | 954 | ||
| Fuel Cells | 955 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer | 956 | ||
| 19.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity | 956 | ||
| Predicting the Products of Electrolysis | 559 | ||
| Stoichiometry of Electrolysis | 962 | ||
| 19.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions | 963 | ||
| Corrosion of Iron | 964 | ||
| Preventing the Corrosion of Iron | 965 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 965 | ||
| Key Terms | 966 | ||
| Key Concepts | 967 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 967 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 968 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 968 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 969 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 972 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 974 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 974 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 974 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 975 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 975 | ||
| 20 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry | 976 | ||
| 20.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis | 977 | ||
| 20.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity | 978 | ||
| 20.3 Types of Radioactivity | 979 | ||
| Alpha (& | 980 | ||
| Beta (& | 981 | ||
| Gamma (& | 981 | ||
| Positron Emission | 982 | ||
| Electron Capture | 982 | ||
| 20.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity | 984 | ||
| Magic Numbers | 985 | ||
| Radioactive Decay Series | 986 | ||
| 20.5 Detecting Radioactivity | 986 | ||
| 20.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating | 987 | ||
| The Integrated Rate Law | 989 | ||
| Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts | 990 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Radiocarbon Dating and the Shroud of Turin | 992 | ||
| Uranium/Lead Dating | 992 | ||
| 20.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power | 994 | ||
| The Manhattan Project | 994 | ||
| Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity | 996 | ||
| Problems with Nuclear Power | 997 | ||
| 20.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy | 998 | ||
| Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy | 998 | ||
| The Nuclear Binding Energy Curve | 1000 | ||
| 20.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun | 1000 | ||
| 20.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements | 1001 | ||
| 20.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life | 1002 | ||
| Acute Radiation Damage | 1003 | ||
| Increased Cancer Risk | 1003 | ||
| Genetic Defects | 1003 | ||
| Measuring Radiation Exposure and Dose | 1003 | ||
| 20.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications | 1005 | ||
| Diagnosis in Medicine | 1005 | ||
| Radiotherapy in Medicine | 1006 | ||
| Other Applications | 1007 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1007 | ||
| Key Terms | 1008 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1008 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 1009 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1010 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1010 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1011 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1012 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1013 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1014 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1014 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1015 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1015 | ||
| 21 Organic Chemistry | 1016 | ||
| 21.1 Fragrances and Odors | 1017 | ||
| 21.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique | 1018 | ||
| Chemistry in Your Day: Vitalism and the Perceived Differences between Organic and Inorganic Compounds | 1019 | ||
| 21.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen | 1020 | ||
| Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures | 1021 | ||
| Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism | 1023 | ||
| 21.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons | 1026 | ||
| Naming Alkanes | 1027 | ||
| 21.5 Alkenes and Alkynes | 1030 | ||
| Naming Alkenes and Alkynes | 1031 | ||
| Geometric (Cis–Trans) Isomerism in Alkenes | 1034 | ||
| 21.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions | 1035 | ||
| Reactions of Alkanes | 1035 | ||
| Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes | 1036 | ||
| 21.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons | 1038 | ||
| Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons | 1038 | ||
| Reactions of Aromatic Compounds | 1040 | ||
| 21.8 Functional Groups | 1041 | ||
| 21.9 Alcohols | 1042 | ||
| Naming Alcohols | 1042 | ||
| About Alcohols | 1042 | ||
| Alcohol Reactions | 1042 | ||
| 21.10 Aldehydes and Ketones | 1044 | ||
| Naming Aldehydes and Ketones | 1045 | ||
| About Aldehydes and Ketones | 1045 | ||
| Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions | 1046 | ||
| 21.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters | 1047 | ||
| Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters | 1047 | ||
| About Carboxylic Acids and Esters | 1047 | ||
| Carboxylic Acid and Ester Reactions | 1048 | ||
| 21.12 Ethers | 1049 | ||
| Naming Ethers | 1049 | ||
| About Ethers | 1050 | ||
| 21.13 Amines | 1050 | ||
| Amine Reactions | 1050 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1051 | ||
| Key Terms | 1052 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1052 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 1053 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1054 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1055 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1055 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1061 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1063 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1064 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1064 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1064 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1065 | ||
| 22 Biochemistry | 1066 | ||
| 22.1 Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin | 1067 | ||
| 22.2 Lipids | 1068 | ||
| Fatty Acids | 1068 | ||
| Fats and Oils | 1070 | ||
| Other Lipids | 1071 | ||
| 22.3 Carbohydrates | 1073 | ||
| Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and Disaccharides | 1073 | ||
| Complex Carbohydrates | 1075 | ||
| 22.4 Proteins and Amino Acids | 1076 | ||
| Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins | 1077 | ||
| Peptide Bonding between Amino Acids | 1079 | ||
| 22.5 Protein Structure | 1080 | ||
| Primary Structure | 1082 | ||
| Secondary Structure | 1082 | ||
| Tertiary Structure | 1083 | ||
| Quaternary Structure | 1084 | ||
| 22.6 Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins | 1084 | ||
| The Basic Structure of Nucleic Acids | 1084 | ||
| The Genetic Code | 1086 | ||
| 22.7 DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis | 1088 | ||
| DNA Replication and the Double Helix | 1088 | ||
| Protein Synthesis | 1089 | ||
| Chemistry and Medicine: The Human Genome Project | 1090 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1091 | ||
| Key Terms | 1092 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1092 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1093 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1094 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1094 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1097 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1098 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1098 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1099 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1099 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1099 | ||
| 23 Chemistry of the Nonmetals | 1100 | ||
| 23.1 Insulated Nanowires | 1101 | ||
| 23.2 The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties | 1102 | ||
| 23.3 Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth’s Crust | 1104 | ||
| Quartz | 1104 | ||
| Aluminosilicates | 1104 | ||
| Individual Silicate Units, Silicate Chains, and Silicate Sheets | 1105 | ||
| 23.4 Boron and Its Remarkable Structures | 1108 | ||
| Elemental Boron | 1108 | ||
| Boron–Halogen Compounds: Trihalides | 1108 | ||
| Boron–Oxygen Compounds | 1109 | ||
| Boron–Hydrogen Compounds: Boranes | 1109 | ||
| 23.5 Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates | 1110 | ||
| Amorphous Carbon | 1110 | ||
| Carbides | 1111 | ||
| Carbon Oxides | 1113 | ||
| Carbonates | 1113 | ||
| 23.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life | 1114 | ||
| Elemental Nitrogen and Phosphorus | 1114 | ||
| Nitrogen Compounds | 1116 | ||
| Phosphorus Compounds | 1119 | ||
| 23.7 Oxygen | 1121 | ||
| Elemental Oxygen | 1121 | ||
| Uses for Oxygen | 1122 | ||
| Oxides | 1122 | ||
| Ozone | 1122 | ||
| 23.8 Sulfur: A Dangerous but Useful Element | 1123 | ||
| Elemental Sulfur | 1123 | ||
| Hydrogen Sulfide and Metal Sulfides | 1125 | ||
| Sulfur Dioxide | 1126 | ||
| Sulfuric Acid | 1126 | ||
| 23.9 Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity | 1127 | ||
| Elemental Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid | 1128 | ||
| Elemental Chlorine | 1129 | ||
| Halogen Compounds | 1129 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1131 | ||
| Key Terms | 1132 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1132 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1133 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1133 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1133 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1135 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1136 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1136 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1136 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1137 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1137 | ||
| 24 Metals and Metallurgy | 1138 | ||
| 24.1 Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity | 1139 | ||
| 24.2 The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals | 1140 | ||
| 24.3 Metallurgical Processes | 1142 | ||
| Separation | 1142 | ||
| Pyrometallurgy | 1142 | ||
| Hydrometallurgy | 1143 | ||
| Electrometallurgy | 1144 | ||
| Powder Metallurgy | 1145 | ||
| 24.4 Metal Structures and Alloys | 1146 | ||
| Alloys | 1146 | ||
| Substitutional Alloys | 1146 | ||
| Alloys with Limited Solubility | 1148 | ||
| Interstitial Alloys | 1149 | ||
| 24.5 Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals | 1151 | ||
| Titanium | 1151 | ||
| Chromium | 1152 | ||
| Manganese | 1153 | ||
| Cobalt | 1154 | ||
| Copper | 1155 | ||
| Nickel | 1155 | ||
| Zinc | 1156 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1156 | ||
| Key Terms | 1158 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1158 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 1158 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1159 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1159 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1159 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1161 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1161 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1161 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1162 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1162 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1163 | ||
| 25 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds | 1164 | ||
| 25.1 The Colors of rubies and Emeralds | 1165 | ||
| 25.2 Properties of Transition Metals | 1166 | ||
| Electron Configurations | 1166 | ||
| Atomic Size | 1168 | ||
| Ionization Energy | 1168 | ||
| Electronegativity | 1169 | ||
| Oxidation States | 1169 | ||
| 25.3 Coordination Compounds | 1170 | ||
| Naming Coordination Compounds | 1173 | ||
| 25.4 Structure and Isomerization | 1175 | ||
| Structural Isomerism | 1175 | ||
| Stereoisomerism | 1177 | ||
| 25.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds | 1180 | ||
| Valence Bond Theory | 1180 | ||
| Crystal Field Theory | 1181 | ||
| 25.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds | 1185 | ||
| Chelating Agents | 1186 | ||
| Chemical Analysis | 1186 | ||
| Coloring Agents | 1186 | ||
| Biomolecules | 1186 | ||
| CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz | 1189 | ||
| Key Terms | 1189 | ||
| Key Concepts | 1190 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 1190 | ||
| Key Learning Outcomes | 1190 | ||
| EXERCISES: Review Questions | 1191 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 1191 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 1193 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 1193 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 1194 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 1194 | ||
| Data Interpretation and Analysis | 1194 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 1195 | ||
| Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry | A-1 | ||
| Appendix II: Useful Data | A-5 | ||
| Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises | A-15 | ||
| Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems | A-54 | ||
| Glossary | G-1 | ||
| A | G-1 | ||
| B | G-2 | ||
| C | G-3 | ||
| D | G-5 | ||
| E | G-6 | ||
| F | G-7 | ||
| G | G-8 | ||
| H | G-8 | ||
| I | G-9 | ||
| J | G-10 | ||
| K | G-10 | ||
| L | G-10 | ||
| M | G-11 | ||
| N | G-12 | ||
| O | G-13 | ||
| P | G-13 | ||
| Q | G-15 | ||
| R | G-15 | ||
| S | G-16 | ||
| T | G-18 | ||
| U | G-18 | ||
| V | G-19 | ||
| W | G-19 | ||
| X | G-19 | ||
| Photo and Text Credits | C-1 | ||
| Index | I-1 | ||
| A | I-1 | ||
| B | I-3 | ||
| C | I-4 | ||
| D | I-7 | ||
| E | I-8 | ||
| F | I-10 | ||
| G | I-10 | ||
| H | I-11 | ||
| I | I-13 | ||
| J | I-14 | ||
| K | I-14 | ||
| L | I-14 | ||
| M | I-15 | ||
| N | I-17 | ||
| O | I-18 | ||
| P | I-19 | ||
| Q | I-21 | ||
| R | I-21 | ||
| S | I-22 | ||
| T | I-25 | ||
| U | I-26 | ||
| V | I-26 | ||
| W | I-27 | ||
| X | I-27 | ||
| Y | I-27 | ||
| Z | I-27 |