BOOK
Fetal and Neonatal Physiology E-Book
Richard A. Polin | Steven H. Abman | David Rowitch | William E. Benitz
(2016)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Fetal & Neonatal Physiology provides neonatologist fellows and physicians with the essential information they need to effectively diagnose, treat, and manage sick and premature infants. Fully comprehensive, this resource continues to serve as an excellent reference tool, focusing on the basic science needed for exam preparation and the key information required for full-time practice.
The 5th edition is the most substantially updated and revised edition ever. In the 5 years since the last edition published, there have been thousands of publications on various aspects of development of health and disease; Fetal and Neonatal Physiology synthesizes this knowledge into definitive guidance for today's busy practitioner.
- Offers definitive guidance on how to effectively manage the many health problems seen in newborn and premature infants.
- Chapters devoted to clinical correlation help explain the implications of fetal and neonatal physiology.
- Allows you to apply the latest insights on genetic therapy, intrauterine infections, brain protection and neuroimaging, and much more.
- Features a fantastic new 4-color design with 1,000 illustrations, 170+ chapters, and over 350 contributors.
- 16 new chapters cover such hot topics as Epigenetics; Placental Function in Intrauterine Growth Restriction; Regulation of Pulmonary Circulation; The Developing Microbiome of the Fetus and Newborn; Hereditary Contribution to Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia; Mechanistic Aspects of Phototherapy for Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia; Cerebellar Development; Pathophysiology of Neonatal Sepsis; Pathophysiology of Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn; Pathophysiology of Meconium Aspiration Syndrome; Pathophysiology of Ventilator Dependent Infants; Pathophysiology of Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury; Pathophysiology of Neonatal White Matter Injury; Pathophysiology of Meningitis; Pathophysiology of Preeclampsia; and Pathophysiology of Chorioamnionitis.
- New Pathophysiology of Neonatal Diseases section highlights every process associated with a disease or injury, all in one place.
- In-depth information, combined with end-of-chapter summaries, enables deep or quick use of the text.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9780323352321v1_WEB.pdf | 1 | ||
| Front Cover | 1 | ||
| Expert Consult page | 2 | ||
| Fetal and Neonatal Physiology | 5 | ||
| Copyright Page | 6 | ||
| Dedication | 7 | ||
| Contributors | 9 | ||
| Preface | 32 | ||
| Table Of Contents | 33 | ||
| I Genetics and Embryology | 41 | ||
| 1 Basic Genetic Principles | 41 | ||
| Primary Structure of Nucleic Acid | 41 | ||
| Genomic Organization | 41 | ||
| Chromosomes | 41 | ||
| Gene Structure | 42 | ||
| How Genes Function | 43 | ||
| Flow of Genetic Information | 43 | ||
| Transcription | 43 | ||
| Translation and the Genetic Code | 44 | ||
| Regulation of Gene Expression | 44 | ||
| Epigenetics | 44 | ||
| Posttranscriptional Regulation | 45 | ||
| Stem Cells and Development | 45 | ||
| Cell Division and Recombination | 46 | ||
| Cell Cycle and Mitosis | 46 | ||
| Meiosis | 47 | ||
| Recombination | 47 | ||
| Mutation and Genetic Heterogeneity | 47 | ||
| Single-Gene Mutations | 48 | ||
| Chromosomal Mutations | 48 | ||
| Genetic Disorders | 48 | ||
| Single-Gene Disorders | 48 | ||
| Autosomal Dominant Disorders | 49 | ||
| Autosomal Recessive Disorders | 49 | ||
| X-Linked Disorders | 50 | ||
| Chromosomal Disorders | 50 | ||
| Mitochondrial Disorders | 51 | ||
| Multifactorial Disorders | 51 | ||
| Heterogeneity in Genetic Disorders | 51 | ||
| Genetic Diagnosis | 52 | ||
| Gene and Cell Therapy | 52 | ||
| Stem Cells | 53 | ||
| Online Genetics Resources | 53 | ||
| 2 Prenatal Diagnosis | 54 | ||
| Screening | 54 | ||
| Parental Clinical History | 54 | ||
| Parental Age | 54 | ||
| Reproductive History | 54 | ||
| Family History | 55 | ||
| Noninvasive Prenatal Screening | 56 | ||
| Use of cell-free fetal DNA to screen for Rh disease | 57 | ||
| Prenatal Ultrasound Examination | 58 | ||
| First-Trimester Screening for Aneuploidy | 58 | ||
| Diagnostic Testing | 60 | ||
| Chorionic Villus Sampling | 60 | ||
| Early Amniocentesis (at 9 to 11 Weeks of Gestation) | 60 | ||
| Standard Amniocentesis at 15 Weeks or Later | 60 | ||
| Percutaneous Umbilical Blood Sampling | 61 | ||
| New Avenues for Prenatal Diagnosis | 61 | ||
| Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis | 61 | ||
| Chromosomal microarray analysis | 61 | ||
| Future Directions | 62 | ||
| Summary | 62 | ||
| References | 62 | ||
| References | 64 | ||
| 3 Basic Embryology | 63 | ||
| Gametes and Their Maturation | 63 | ||
| Origin of the Gametes | 63 | ||
| Organization of the Gonad | 65 | ||
| Development of the Female Gamete (See Chapter 150) | 65 | ||
| Early Development of Male Gametes (See Chapter 151) | 67 | ||
| Fertilization | 68 | ||
| Morphogenesis | 69 | ||
| Embryology of the Organ Systems | 70 | ||
| Nervous System (See Chapter 131) | 70 | ||
| Further Development of the Central Nervous System | 71 | ||
| The Eye (See Chapter 167) | 72 | ||
| The Ear (See Chapter 138) | 73 | ||
| Cardiovascular System (See Chapter 50) | 73 | ||
| Heart | 73 | ||
| Vessels | 74 | ||
| The Musculoskeletal System (See Chapter 141) | 74 | ||
| Muscular System | 74 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle | 75 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle | 75 | ||
| Smooth Muscle | 75 | ||
| Skeletal System (See Chapter 140) | 75 | ||
| Respiratory System (See Chapter 61) | 76 | ||
| Digestive System (See Chapters 86 and 87) | 76 | ||
| Oral Cavity and Anal Regions | 76 | ||
| Liver (See Chapter 94) | 76 | ||
| Pancreas (See Chapter 91) | 77 | ||
| Esophagus | 77 | ||
| Stomach | 77 | ||
| Duodenum | 77 | ||
| Lower Gastrointestinal Tract | 77 | ||
| Urinary System (See Chapter 99) | 77 | ||
| Growth and Maturation of the Embryo and Fetus | 78 | ||
| References | 79 | ||
| References | 81 | ||
| 4 Regulation of Embryogenesis | 80 | ||
| Introduction | 80 | ||
| Embryogenesis is Autonomously Regulated by Epigenetic Imprinting | 80 | ||
| Embryogenesis is Conditionally Regulated by Secreted Growth Factors | 83 | ||
| Signaling Centers are Established by Feedback Regulation | 84 | ||
| Morphogenic Gradients are Established by Signaling Centers | 85 | ||
| Vertebrate Left-Right Asymmetry is Established during Late Gastrulation | 86 | ||
| Dorsal-Ventral Axis | 86 | ||
| Neurulation is Initiated by Sonic Hedgehog Gradients | 87 | ||
| Segmentation is Controlled by Signaling Gradients and Cycling Genes | 87 | ||
| Segment Positional Identity is Conferred by Homeobox Genes | 89 | ||
| Neuroectodermal Regulation Patterns Craniofacial Structures | 89 | ||
| Disrupted Craniofacial Development is Associated with Visceral Malformations | 90 | ||
| Summary | 90 | ||
| References | 91 | ||
| References | 92 | ||
| 5 The Extracellular Matrix in Development | 94 | ||
| The Extracellular Matrix Is Structurally Diverse | 94 | ||
| The Extracellular Matrix Is Multifunctional | 94 | ||
| Investigating Extracellular Matrix Functions | 94 | ||
| Integrins as Extracellular Matrix Receptors | 95 | ||
| Signaling through Integrins | 95 | ||
| Integrins and Growth Factors | 96 | ||
| Matrix Metalloproteinases | 97 | ||
| Biomechanical Forces | 97 | ||
| Changes in Cell Shape | 98 | ||
| Extracellular Matrix as a Platform for Tissue Engineering | 98 | ||
| Conclusion | 98 | ||
| References | 98 | ||
| References | 100 | ||
| 6 Stem Cell Biology | 99 | ||
| Concepts and Nomenclature | 99 | ||
| Embryo-Derived Stem Cells | 105 | ||
| Embryonic Development | 105 | ||
| Embryonic Germ Cells | 106 | ||
| Embryonic Stem Cells of Mouse Origin | 106 | ||
| Embryonic Stem Cells of Human Origin | 108 | ||
| Reprogramming Somatic Cells to a Pluripotent State | 109 | ||
| Reprogramming (hiPSCs), Nuclear Fusion, Direct Lineage Conversion | 109 | ||
| Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer | 111 | ||
| Genomic Stability and Lineage Commitment of Pluripotent Stem Cells | 112 | ||
| Genomic Changes in PSCs | 112 | ||
| Differentiation of PSCs | 113 | ||
| Genome Editing | 115 | ||
| Somatic (Tissue-Resident or Tissue-Derived) Stem Cells) | 116 | ||
| Mesenchymal Stem or Stromal Cells | 117 | ||
| Germline Stem Cells | 117 | ||
| Cancer Stem Cells | 117 | ||
| Potential Clinical Utility of Stem Cells | 117 | ||
| Replacement Cell and Gene Therapies: Neural Stem or Progenitor Cells as a Prototype | 117 | ||
| MSCs and Other Types of Solid Organ-Derived Somatic Stem Cells | 120 | ||
| Summary and Future Directions | 121 | ||
| Suggested Reading | 122 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| References | 123 | ||
| 7 Mechanisms of Cell Death in the Developing Brain | 128 | ||
| Introduction | 128 | ||
| Apoptotic Cell Death | 128 | ||
| The Apoptotic Cell Machinery | 128 | ||
| Apoptosis in the Immature Brain | 129 | ||
| Role of the Intrinsic Pathway in Perinatal Brain Injury | 130 | ||
| Upstream Regulators of Mitochondrial Outer Membrane Permeabilization | 131 | ||
| Timing of Mitochondrial Outer Membrane Permeabilization | 131 | ||
| Extrinsic Pathway and Death Receptors in Perinatal Brain Injury | 131 | ||
| Necrosis and Necroptosis | 132 | ||
| The Cellular Mechanism of Necroptosis | 132 | ||
| Negative Regulation of Necroptosis | 132 | ||
| Necroptosis and the Mitochondrion | 133 | ||
| Necroptosis and Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury | 134 | ||
| 9780323352321v2_WEB | 1224 | ||
| Front Cover | 1224 | ||
| Fetal and Neonatal Physiology | 1227 | ||
| Copyright Page | 1228 | ||
| Dedication | 1229 | ||
| Contributors | 1231 | ||
| Preface | 1254 | ||
| Table Of Contents | 1255 | ||
| XV Liver and Bilirubin Metabolism | 1263 | ||
| 94 Organogenesis and Histologic Development of the Liver | 1263 | ||
| Introduction | 1263 | ||
| Early Embryogenesis: an Overview | 1263 | ||
| Late Embryogenesis: an Overview | 1263 | ||
| Specific Interactions Promoting Hepatogenesis | 1264 | ||
| Hepatic Vascular Anatomy | 1264 | ||
| Intrahepatic Vascular Development | 1264 | ||
| Biliary Duct Development | 1265 | ||
| Hepatic Hematopoiesis | 1265 | ||
| Sinusoidal Cells: Kupffer and Ito Cells | 1265 | ||
| Acinar Organization | 1265 | ||
| Regulation of Fetal Liver Growth and Maturation | 1265 | ||
| References | 1266 | ||
| References | 1268 | ||
| 95 Bile Acid Metabolism During Development | 1267 | ||
| Unique Structure and Metabolic Roles of the Liver | 1267 | ||
| Lobular Architecture | 1267 | ||
| Microarchitecture | 1270 | ||
| Hepatocyte Polarity and Membrane Features | 1271 | ||
| Biliary Tree | 1271 | ||
| Bile Composition | 1271 | ||
| Chemical Structure and Synthesis of Bile Acids | 1272 | ||
| Regulation of Bile Acid Synthesis and Pool Composition | 1273 | ||
| Bile Acid Metabolism during Development | 1273 | ||
| Fetal Bile Acid Synthesis and Metabolism | 1273 | ||
| Fetal Liver-Placenta-Maternal Liver Bile Acid Metabolism | 1273 | ||
| Placental Bile Acid Transport | 1274 | ||
| Bile Flow | 1275 | ||
| Enterohepatic Circulation | 1275 | ||
| Hepatic Bile Acid Transport | 1275 | ||
| Basolateral (Sinusoidal) Transporters | 1275 | ||
| Na+-Taurocholate Cotransporting Polypeptide | 1275 | ||
| Organic Anion-Transporting Peptide Family | 1277 | ||
| Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein 3 | 1277 | ||
| Organic Solute Transporters α and β | 1277 | ||
| Cytosol | 1278 | ||
| Canalicular (Apical) Transporters | 1278 | ||
| Bile Salt Export Pump (ABCB11) | 1278 | ||
| Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein 2 | 1278 | ||
| Multidrug Resistance Protein 3 | 1278 | ||
| ABCG5/ABCG8 | 1278 | ||
| Cholangiocytes | 1278 | ||
| Intestinal Bile Acid Transport | 1278 | ||
| Cholestatic Disorders | 1279 | ||
| Genetic Disorders | 1279 | ||
| Disorders of Bile Acid Synthesis | 1279 | ||
| Disorders of the Tight Junction | 1280 | ||
| Tight Junction Protein 2: Familial Hypercholanemia | 1280 | ||
| Disorders of Bile Acid Transport | 1280 | ||
| Progressive Intrahepatic Cholestasis Syndromes | 1280 | ||
| FIC1 Deficiency and Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis Type 1 | 1280 | ||
| Bile Salt Export Pump Deficiency and Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis Type 2 | 1280 | ||
| Multidrug Resistance Protein 3 Deficiency and Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis Type 3 | 1280 | ||
| Benign Recurrent Intrahepatic Cholestasis | 1281 | ||
| Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy | 1281 | ||
| Dubin-Johnson Syndrome | 1281 | ||
| Intestinal Bile Acid Malabsorption | 1281 | ||
| Acquired Cholestatic Disorders | 1281 | ||
| Drug-Induced Cholestasis | 1281 | ||
| Sepsis-Associated Cholestasis | 1282 | ||
| Parenteral Nutrition–Associated Liver Disease | 1282 | ||
| Lipid Restriction | 1283 | ||
| Alternate Lipid Emulsions | 1283 | ||
| Summary | 1284 | ||
| References | 1284 | ||
| References | 1286 | ||
| 96 Neonatal Bilirubin Metabolism | 1285 | ||
| Formation of Bilirubin | 1285 | ||
| Transport, Conjugation, and Excretion of Bilirubin | 1285 | ||
| Conjugation of Bilirubin | 1290 | ||
| Genetic Variations in Bilirubin Conjugation | 1291 | ||
| Hepatic and Enteric Excretion of Bilirubin | 1292 | ||
| Summary | 1292 | ||
| References | 1292 | ||
| 97 Hereditary Contribution to Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia | 1293 | ||
| Introduction | 1293 | ||
| The Serum Total Bilirubin: What Does It Imply? | 1294 | ||
| Imbalance between Bilirubin Production and Elimination | 1294 | ||
| Genetically Determined Metabolic Steps on the Pathway From Heme to Conjugated Bilirubin | 1294 | ||
| Heme Oxygenase-1 | 1294 | ||
| Studies of Bilirubin Metabolism | 1295 | ||
| HO-1 Polymorphisms and Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia | 1295 | ||
| Biliverdin Reductase | 1296 | ||
| Solute Carrier Organic Anion Transporter | 1296 | ||
| Genetics of Bilirubin Conjugation | 1297 | ||
| Uridine Diphosphate-Glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 and the UGT1A1 Gene | 1297 | ||
| The UGT Gene | 1297 | ||
| Hereditary Diseases Resulting in Hyperbilrubinemia | 1297 | ||
| Hereditary Conditions Resulting in Increased Hemolysis | 1297 | ||
| Hemolysis: A Potentiator of Bilirubin Neurotoxicity | 1297 | ||
| Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency | 1297 | ||
| Physiology of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase | 1298 | ||
| Extreme Hyperbilirubinemia in G-6-PD–Deficient Neonates | 1298 | ||
| Moderate Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia | 1298 | ||
| Genetics of G-6-PD Deficiency: Genotype Versus Phenotype | 1299 | ||
| Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency | 1299 | ||
| Hereditary Spherocytosis | 1299 | ||
| Hereditary Conditions Causing Diminished Bilirubin Conjugation | 1300 | ||
| UGT1A1 Polymorphisms and Mutations in the Manifestation of Disease | 1300 | ||
| UGT1A1 (TA)7 Promoter Polymorphism | 1300 | ||
| Gly71Arg Mutation | 1300 | ||
| Gilbert Syndrome Markers and Prolonged Breast Milk Jaundice | 1300 | ||
| Crigler-Najjar Syndrome | 1300 | ||
| Crigler-Najjar Syndrome Type I | 1300 | ||
| Crigler-Najjar Syndrome Type II | 1300 | ||
| Genetic Interactions in the Pathophysiology of Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia | 1300 | ||
| Genome Wide Association Genetic Studies | 1301 | ||
| Heterozygosity and the Potential for Severe Hyperbilirubinemia | 1301 | ||
| Next-Generation DNA Sequencing: When Conventional Diagnostic Methods Fail | 1301 | ||
| References | 1301 | ||
| References | 1303 | ||
| 98 Mechanistic Aspects of Phototherapy for Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia | 1302 | ||
| Introduction | 1302 | ||
| Background | 1306 | ||
| Origin and Medical Innovation | 1306 | ||
| Defining Bilirubin Load: Production and Elimination | 1307 | ||
| Current Measures of Bilirubin Neurotoxicity | 1307 | ||
| Photons, Photochemistry, and Absorption Spectra: Light as a Drug | 1308 | ||
| The Action Spectrum for Bilirubin Phototherapy | 1308 | ||
| Phototherapy Efficacy: Light Sources, Irradiance, and Dose | 1309 | ||
| Fluorescent Lamp Sources | 1309 | ||
| LED Light Sources | 1309 | ||
| Measuring Efficacy | 1310 | ||
| Measuring Irradiance | 1310 | ||
| Assessing Efficacy of Light Sources | 1310 | ||
| Bilirubin Structure, Photochemistry, and Phototherapy Mechanisms | 1311 | ||
| Other Effects of Phototherapy Light | 1311 | ||
| Effect of Phototherapy on Direct Bilirubin | 1311 | ||
| Translation to Clinical Practice | 1312 | ||
| Bioengineering Perspectives | 1312 | ||
| Review of Efficacy of Phototherapy Devices | 1313 | ||
| Guidelines for Phototherapy | 1313 | ||
| Innovation and Future Directions | 1314 | ||
| Summary | 1314 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 1315 | ||
| References | 1315 | ||
| XVI The Kidney | 1316 | ||
| 99 Development of the Kidney | 1316 | ||
| Introduction | 1316 | ||
| Development of the Mammalian Renal Excretory System | 1316 | ||
| The Pronephros | 1316 | ||
| The Mesonephros | 1316 | ||
| The Metanephros | 1317 | ||
| Ureteric Bud Outgrowth | 1318 | ||
| Renal Architectonics | 1319 | ||
| Molecular Regulation of Branching Morphogenesis | 1319 | ||
| The Morphology of Nephrogenesis | 1321 | ||
| Molecular Regulation of Nephrogenesis | 1321 | ||
| Expansion and Survival of Renal Stem Cells | 1322 | ||
| Development of the Renal Vasculature | 1323 | ||
| The Stroma in Kidney Development | 1324 | ||
| Variability in Nephron Number | 1325 | ||
| Prematurity, Birth Weight, and Nephron Number | 1325 | ||
| Summary | 1327 | ||
| References | 1327 | ||
| References | 1328 | ||
| 100 Functional Development of the Kidney in Utero | 1332 | ||
| Introduction | 1332 | ||
| Antenatal Assessments of Kidney Function | 1332 | ||
| Development of the Glomerular Filtration Barrier | 1334 | ||
| Development of Glomerular Filtration | 1334 | ||
| The Determinants of Fetal Glomerular Filtration Rate | 1335 | ||
| Changes in Fetal Glomerular Filtration Rate | 1335 | ||
| Hydrostatic Pressure | 1336 | ||
| Renal Plasma Flow | 1336 | ||
| Renal Blood Flow and Renal Vascular Resistance | 1336 | ||
| Regulation of Fetal Glomerular Filtration Rate | 1336 | ||
| The Renin-Angiotensin System | 1336 | ||
| Renal Nerves and Catecholamines | 1337 | ||
| Endothelin | 1337 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 1337 | ||
| Nitric Oxide | 1338 | ||
| Development of Tubular Function | 1339 | ||
| Water Transport | 1339 | ||
| Sodium Transport | 1340 | ||
| Acid-Base Regulation | 1341 | ||
| Potassium Transport | 1342 | ||
| Calcium and Phosphate Transport | 1342 | ||
| Summary | 1342 | ||
| References | 1343 | ||
| References | 1344 | ||
| 101 Development and Regulation of Renal Blood Flow in the Neonate | 1347 | ||
| Characteristics of Renal Blood Flow in the Immature Kidney | 1347 | ||
| Total Renal Blood Flow | 1347 | ||
| Intrarenal Blood Flow | 1347 | ||
| Autoregulation of Renal Blood Flow in the Young | 1347 | ||
| Regulation of Postnatal Renal Hemodynamics | 1348 | ||
| Role of Anatomic Development | 1348 | ||
| Role of Vasoactive Factors | 1348 | ||
| Adenosine | 1349 | ||
| Arginine Vasopressin | 1349 | ||
| Angiotensin II | 1349 | ||
| Atrial and Other Natriuretic Peptides | 1350 | ||
| Bradykinin | 1350 | ||
| Endothelin | 1350 | ||
| Nitric Oxide | 1350 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 1351 | ||
| Renal Nerves and the Adrenergic System | 1352 | ||
| Summary | 1352 | ||
| References | 1352 | ||
| References | 1354 | ||
| 102 Development of the Renin-Angiotensin System | 1353 | ||
| Overview | 1353 | ||
| Receptor Subtypes for Angiotensin II | 1356 | ||
| Developmental Profile of Renin-Angiotensin System Components | 1357 | ||
| Angiotensinogen | 1357 | ||
| Prorenin and Renin | 1357 | ||
| Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme | 1358 | ||
| Angiotensin II | 1358 | ||
| Angiotensin Receptors | 1358 | ||
| Physiologic Effects of Angiotensin II in the Fetus and Newborn | 1359 | ||
| Renal Effects of Angiotensin II | 1360 | ||
| Perturbations to the Renin-Angiotensin System Pathway during Ontogeny and Physiologic Responses | 1361 | ||
| Interactions between Angiotensin II and Other Pathways during Ontogeny | 1361 | ||
| Physiologic Relevance of the Renin-Angiotensin System during Development | 1361 | ||
| Renin-Angiotensin System Inhibition during Pregnancy | 1361 | ||
| Other Renin-Angiotensin System Disruptions during Pregnancy | 1362 | ||
| Organ Development and the Renin-Angiotensin System | 1362 | ||
| Fetal Programming and the Renin-Angiotensin System | 1363 | ||
| Summary and Future Direction | 1363 | ||
| References | 1363 | ||
| References | 1365 | ||
| 103 Postnatal Development of Glomerular Filtration Rate in Neonates | 1369 | ||
| Physiology of Glomerular Filtration | 1369 | ||
| Vasoactive Agents | 1369 | ||
| Autoregulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate and Renal Blood Flow | 1370 | ||
| Concept of Clearance | 1371 | ||
| Glomerular Markers | 1371 | ||
| Inulin | 1371 | ||
| Inulin as a Marker of Glomerular Filtration Rate in Neonates | 1371 | ||
| Creatinine | 1371 | ||
| Creatinine as a Marker of Glomerular Filtration Rate in Neonates | 1372 | ||
| Iohexol | 1372 | ||
| Iothalamate Sodium | 1372 | ||
| Aminoglycosides (Gentamicin, Amikacin) | 1372 | ||
| Radioisotopic Clearance Studies | 1373 | ||
| Clinical Assessment of Glomerular Filtration Rate in Neonates | 1373 | ||
| Standard Clearances | 1373 | ||
| Inulin Urinary Clearance | 1373 | ||
| Creatinine Urinary Clearance | 1373 | ||
| Estimation of Glomerular Filtration Rate Without Urine Collection | 1373 | ||
| Constant Infusion of Inulin Without Urine Collection | 1373 | ||
| Single-Injection (Plasma Disappearance Curve) Technique | 1373 | ||
| Simple Creatinine Clearance Method in Neonates Without Urine Collection | 1373 | ||
| Detection of an Abnormal Glomerular Filtration Rate by Cystatin C | 1374 | ||
| Development of Glomerular Filtration Rate | 1374 | ||
| Glomerular Filtration Rate at Birth | 1374 | ||
| Maturation of Glomerular Filtration Rate in the First Month of Life | 1375 | ||
| Determinants of the Postnatal Increase in Glomerular Filtration Rate | 1375 | ||
| Factors That Can Impair Glomerular Filtration Rate in the Perinatal Period | 1376 | ||
| Conclusion | 1377 | ||
| References | 1377 | ||
| References | 1379 | ||
| 104 Renal Transport of Sodium During Development | 1378 | ||
| Principles of Membrane Sodium Transport | 1378 | ||
| Developmental Changes in the Na+,K+-ATPase | 1383 | ||
| Maturation of Proximal Tubule Sodium Transport | 1384 | ||
| Induction of Tubular Transporter Maturation | 1384 | ||
| Maturation of Distal Tubule Sodium Transport | 1385 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Transport | 1386 | ||
| Summary | 1387 | ||
| References | 1388 | ||
| References | 1389 | ||
| 105 Potassium Homeostasis in the Fetus and Neonate | 1391 | ||
| Potassium Homeostasis | 1391 | ||
| Regulation Of Internal Potassium Balance | 1391 | ||
| Plasma Potassium Concentration | 1393 | ||
| Hormones | 1393 | ||
| Acid-Base Balance | 1393 | ||
| Other Factors | 1394 | ||
| Regulation of External Potassium Balance | 1394 | ||
| Renal Contribution | 1394 | ||
| Sites of Potassium Transport Along the Nephron | 1395 | ||
| Distal Sodium Delivery and Transepithelial Voltage | 1396 | ||
| Tubular Flow Rate | 1397 | ||
| Potassium Intake and Cellular Potassium Content | 1397 | ||
| Hormones | 1397 | ||
| Acid-Base Balance | 1398 | ||
| Contribution of the Gastrointestinal Tract | 1398 | ||
| Conditions of Abnormal Potassium Levels | 1398 | ||
| Hyperkalemia | 1398 | ||
| Nonoliguric Hyperkalemia | 1398 | ||
| Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type I | 1399 | ||
| Renal Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type I | 1399 | ||
| Generalized Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type I | 1399 | ||
| Transient Pseudohypoaldosteronism | 1399 | ||
| Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type II | 1399 | ||
| Clinical Presentation | 1399 | ||
| Genetics | 1399 | ||
| Physiology | 1400 | ||
| Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia | 1401 | ||
| Renal Tubular Dysgenesis | 1401 | ||
| Hypokalemia | 1401 | ||
| References | 1403 | ||
| References | 1405 | ||
| 106 Role of the Kidney in Calcium and Phosphorus Homeostasis | 1404 | ||
| Calcium | 1404 | ||
| Renal Handling of Calcium | 1404 | ||
| Paracellular Calcium Transport | 1408 | ||
| Transcellular Calcium Transport | 1408 | ||
| Epithelial Calcium Channels | 1408 | ||
| Calcium Buffering Within the Cell | 1409 | ||
| Calcium Transport Across the Basolateral Membrane | 1409 | ||
| Na+-Ca2+ Exchanger | 1409 | ||
| Plasma Membrane Ca2+-Adenosine Triphosphatase | 1409 | ||
| Regulation of Calcium Transport | 1410 | ||
| Parathyroid Hormone | 1410 | ||
| Calcium-Sensing Receptor | 1410 | ||
| Vitamin D | 1410 | ||
| Calcitonin | 1411 | ||
| Plasma Calcium Concentration | 1411 | ||
| Hypercalcemia | 1411 | ||
| Hypocalcemia | 1411 | ||
| Phosphate and Magnesium | 1411 | ||
| Volume Status | 1411 | ||
| Acid-Base Status | 1411 | ||
| Insulin, Glucagon, and Glucose | 1411 | ||
| Mineralocorticoids | 1411 | ||
| Diuretics | 1411 | ||
| Autocrine and Paracrine Calcitropic Hormones | 1412 | ||
| Arginine Vasopressin | 1412 | ||
| Prostaglandin E2 | 1412 | ||
| Adenosine | 1412 | ||
| Adenosine Triphosphate | 1412 | ||
| Nitric Oxide | 1412 | ||
| Thyroid Hormone | 1412 | ||
| Fetal and Neonatal Aspects of Renal Transport of Calcium | 1412 | ||
| Phosphorus | 1412 | ||
| Phosphate Reabsorption and the Transport Maximum | 1413 | ||
| Sodium-Phosphate Transporters | 1413 | ||
| Age-Dependent Effects of Parathyroid Hormone on Renal Phosphate Reabsorption | 1414 | ||
| Age-Dependent Effects of Dietary Phosphate on Renal Phosphate Reabsorption | 1415 | ||
| Thyroid Hormone | 1415 | ||
| Growth Hormone | 1415 | ||
| Central Regulation of Renal Phosphate Reabsorption | 1415 | ||
| New Perspectives in the Clinical Relevance of Renal Pi Regulation | 1415 | ||
| Phosphatonins | 1415 | ||
| FGF23 | 1416 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1416 | ||
| References | 1416 | ||
| References | 1418 | ||
| 107 Transport of Amino Acids in the Fetus and Neonate | 1417 | ||
| General Features | 1417 | ||
| Epithelial Transport of Amino Acids | 1417 | ||
| Neutral Amino Acids | 1422 | ||
| Cationic Amino Acids and Cystine | 1423 | ||
| Anionic Amino Acids | 1423 | ||
| Proline, Hydroxyproline, and Glycine | 1424 | ||
| Taurine and Other β–Amino Acids | 1424 | ||
| Placental Amino Acid Transport | 1425 | ||
| Renal Handling of Amino Acids | 1425 | ||
| Developmental Changes in Neonatal Renal Function | 1425 | ||
| Summary | 1426 | ||
| References | 1426 | ||
| 108 Organic Anion Transport in the Developing Kidney | 1427 | ||
| Age-Dependent Expression of Organic Anion Transporters in the Developing Kidney | 1427 | ||
| Regulation of Organic Anion Transporter Expression during Kidney Development | 1428 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Organic Anion Transporter Expression | 1428 | ||
| Transcriptional and Posttranscriptional Regulation of Organic Anion Transporter Expression | 1430 | ||
| Substrates Affecting Organic Anion Transporter Expression | 1431 | ||
| Structural and Environmental Changes Affecting Organic Anion Transporter Expression | 1431 | ||
| Summary | 1431 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 1431 | ||
| References | 1431 | ||
| References | 1433 | ||
| 109 Concentration and Dilution of Urine | 1435 | ||
| Physiology of the Urinary Concentrating Mechanism | 1435 | ||
| Renal Mechanism for Concentration and Dilution of Urine | 1435 | ||
| Role of Short-Loop Nephrons and Urea | 1435 | ||
| Role of Vasa Recta | 1437 | ||
| Role of the Renal Pelvis | 1437 | ||
| Role of Aquaporins | 1438 | ||
| Role of Chloride Channels | 1440 | ||
| Urinary Concentration in the Fetus | 1441 | ||
| Maturation of Fetal Water Reabsorption | 1441 | ||
| Availability of and Responsiveness to Vasopressin | 1441 | ||
| Exogenous Vasopressin | 1441 | ||
| Endogenous Vasopressin | 1442 | ||
| Other Effects of Vasopressin | 1442 | ||
| Aquaporins | 1443 | ||
| Urinary Concentration in the Neonate | 1443 | ||
| Neonatal Urinary Concentrating Capacity | 1443 | ||
| Factors Limiting Concentrating Ability in the Neonate | 1444 | ||
| Physiologic Considerations | 1444 | ||
| Fluid Transport in Superficial Nephrons. | 1444 | ||
| Ascending Thin Limb. | 1444 | ||
| Fluid Transport in Collecting Tubules. | 1444 | ||
| Urea. | 1444 | ||
| Response to Vasopressin. | 1445 | ||
| Aquaporins. | 1446 | ||
| Prostaglandins. | 1447 | ||
| Renin-Angiotensin System. | 1447 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 1448 | ||
| Loops of Henle of Deep Nephrons. | 1448 | ||
| Loops of Henle of Short Nephrons. | 1448 | ||
| Renal Inner Medullary Tubule Organization. | 1448 | ||
| Renal Blood Flow. | 1450 | ||
| Renal Pelvis. | 1451 | ||
| Physiology of the Urinary Diluting Mechanism | 1452 | ||
| Urinary Dilution in the Fetus | 1453 | ||
| Urinary Dilution in the Neonate | 1453 | ||
| Conclusion | 1454 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1454 | ||
| References | 1454 | ||
| References | 1456 | ||
| 110 Urinary Acidification | 1455 | ||
| Introduction | 1455 | ||
| Urinary Acidification Mechanisms in the Adult | 1455 | ||
| Acid-Base Regulation in the Mature Proximal Tubule | 1455 | ||
| Acid-Base Regulation in Thick Ascending Limb and Distal Tubule | 1462 | ||
| Acid-Base Regulation in the Mature Collecting Duct | 1462 | ||
| Early Kidney Development | 1462 | ||
| Glomerulovascular Developmental Context of Urinary Acidification | 1462 | ||
| Proximal Bicarbonate Reabsorption in the Neonate | 1463 | ||
| Distal Proton Secretion in the Neonate | 1464 | ||
| Hereditary Disorders of Acid-Base Balance | 1464 | ||
| Summary | 1465 | ||
| References | 1466 | ||
| References | 1467 | ||
| 111 Response to Nephron Loss in Early Development | 1468 | ||
| Overview | 1468 | ||
| Methodology to Count Nephrons and Surrogates for Nephron Number | 1468 | ||
| Renal Mass and Factors Influencing Nephron Number | 1468 | ||
| Genetic Factors | 1468 | ||
| In Utero Factors | 1469 | ||
| Ex Utero Factors | 1469 | ||
| Responses to Nephron Loss: Experimental Data | 1470 | ||
| Prenatal Adaptation to Nephron Loss | 1470 | ||
| Hemodynamics | 1470 | ||
| Stimuli for Compensatory Renal Growth | 1470 | ||
| Compensatory Renal Adaptation in the Fetus | 1470 | ||
| Postnatal Adaptation to Nephron Loss | 1471 | ||
| Responses to Nephron Loss: Clinical Data | 1471 | ||
| Unilateral Multicystic Kidney and Renal Agenesis | 1471 | ||
| Renal Hypoplasia and Dysplasia | 1471 | ||
| Congenital Hydronephrosis | 1472 | ||
| Prematurity and Acute Kidney Injury | 1472 | ||
| Progression of Renal Insufficiency | 1472 | ||
| Long Term Follow-up and Therapeutics | 1473 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1473 | ||
| References | 1473 | ||
| References | 1475 | ||
| XVII Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism | 1478 | ||
| 112 Fluid Distribution in the Fetus and Neonate | 1478 | ||
| Developmental Changes in Body Fluid Volumes during Fetal Life | 1478 | ||
| Total Body Water | 1478 | ||
| Extracellular Fluid and Intracellular Fluid Compartments | 1478 | ||
| Blood Volume | 1479 | ||
| Lymph and Lymph Flow | 1479 | ||
| Amniotic Fluid Volume | 1480 | ||
| Changes in Body Fluid Compartments: before and after Birth | 1481 | ||
| Period before Labor | 1481 | ||
| Labor and Delivery | 1481 | ||
| Neonatal Weight Loss | 1481 | ||
| Changes in Blood Volume in the Immediate Neonatal Period | 1482 | ||
| Measurement of Red Cell Mass, Plasma Volume, Blood Volume, and Interstitial Fluid Volume | 1482 | ||
| Red Cell Mass | 1482 | ||
| Plasma Volume | 1482 | ||
| Blood Volume | 1482 | ||
| Interstitial Volume | 1482 | ||
| Fluid Distribution between Intravascular and Interstitial Compartments | 1483 | ||
| Volumes under Steady-state Conditions | 1483 | ||
| Effects of Placental Transfusion | 1483 | ||
| Responses to Hemorrhage | 1484 | ||
| Responses to Volume Loading | 1484 | ||
| Intravascular Infusion of Isotonic Solutions | 1484 | ||
| Blood Transfusion | 1485 | ||
| Responses to Hypoxia | 1485 | ||
| Summary | 1485 | ||
| References | 1485 | ||
| References | 1487 | ||
| 113 Regulation of Acid-Base Balance in the Fetus and Neonate | 1486 | ||
| Extracellular Buffer System | 1486 | ||
| Intracellular Buffer System | 1490 | ||
| Respiratory Compensatory Mechanism | 1490 | ||
| Renal Compensatory Mechanism | 1490 | ||
| Regulation of Acid-Base Balance in the Fetus | 1490 | ||
| Fetal Extracellular and Intracellular Buffer Systems | 1490 | ||
| Fetal Respiratory and Renal Compensatory Mechanisms | 1490 | ||
| Fetal Metabolic Acidosis | 1490 | ||
| Fetal Respiratory Acidosis | 1491 | ||
| Fetal Metabolic Alkalosis | 1491 | ||
| Fetal Respiratory Alkalosis | 1491 | ||
| Regulation of Acid-Base Balance in the Neonate | 1491 | ||
| Neonatal Extracellular and Intracellular Buffer Systems | 1491 | ||
| Neonatal Respiratory Compensatory Mechanism | 1491 | ||
| Neonatal Renal Compensatory Mechanism | 1491 | ||
| Neonatal Metabolic Acidosis | 1492 | ||
| Neonatal Respiratory Acidosis | 1492 | ||
| Neonatal Metabolic Alkalosis | 1493 | ||
| Neonatal Respiratory Alkalosis | 1493 | ||
| Summary | 1493 | ||
| References | 1493 | ||
| References | 1494 | ||
| XVIII Developmental Hematopoiesis | 1496 | ||
| 114 Developmental Biology of Stem Cells | 1496 | ||
| Definitions of Stem Cells and Stem Cell Terminology | 1496 | ||
| Pluripotent Stem Cells | 1497 | ||
| Murine Embryonic Stem Cells | 1497 | ||
| Isolation | 1497 | ||
| Maintenance of Self-Renewal | 1497 |