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Photocatalysis

Photocatalysis

Dionysios D Dionysiou | Gianluca Li Puma | Jinhua Ye | Jenny Schneider | Detlef Bahnemann

(2016)

Abstract

From environmental remediation to alternative fuels, this book explores the numerous important applications of photocatalysis. The book covers topics such as the photocatalytic processes in the treatment of water and air; the fundamentals of solar photocatalysis; the challenges involved in developing self-cleaning photocatalytic materials; photocatalytic hydrogen generation; photocatalysts in the synthesis of chemicals; and photocatalysis in food packaging and biomedical and medical applications. The book also critically discusses concepts for the future of photocatalysis, providing a fascinating insight for researchers. Together with Photocatalysis: Fundamentals and Perspectives, these volumes provide a complete overview to photocatalysis.

Detlef Bahnemann is a Professor at the Institute for Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany, and Director of the Laboratory for Photoactive Nanocomposite Materials at Saint-Petersburg State University, Russia. He has worked in the field of photocatalysis for over 30 years.

Jenny Schneider is a Researcher at the Institute for Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany. She is a specialist in time-resolved investigations of photocatalytic processes.

Jinhua Ye is Managing Director for the Photo-Catalytic Materials Center (PCMC) at the National Institute for Materials Science, Japan. Her research is dedicated to developing new photocatalytic materials for environment preservation.

Gianluca Li Puma is Professor of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at Loughborough University, UK. He is an expert in reaction and reactor engineering, including photochemical and photocatalytic systems.

Dionysios D. Dionysiou is a Professor in the Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE), University of Cincinnati, USA. He has over 20 years of experience in the field of photocatalysis.


Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover\r Cover
Photocatalysis Applications i
Preface v
Contents vii
Chapter 1 - Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water: Process Optimization and Degradation Pathways† 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Degradation Efficiency-Kinetics of Emerging Contaminants 7
1.2.1 Photocatalytic Degradation of Cyanotoxins 7
1.2.2 Photocatalytic Degradation and Detoxification of Oxytetracycline 7
1.3 Effects of Water Quality Parameters on the Photocatalytic Degradation of Emerging Contaminants 9
1.3.1 Effects of General Water Quality Parameters 9
1.3.2 Effects of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) and Selectivity 11
1.4 Transformation Mechanistic Pathways and Reaction Intermediates 13
1.4.1 Transformation Products of Compounds Resulting from the Reaction of Carbon Bonds 14
1.4.2 Transformation Products of Compounds Resulting from the Reaction of Heteroatoms 24
1.5 Conclusions 29
Acknowledgements 29
References 30
Chapter 2 - Photocatalytic Removal of Metallic and Other Inorganic Pollutants 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Thermodynamical Considerations and Mechanistic Pathways 38
2.3 Chromium 41
2.4 Mercury 46
2.5 Lead 48
2.6 Uranium 50
2.7 Arsenic 52
2.8 Nitrate 56
2.9 Conclusions 59
References 61
Chapter 3 - Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water 72
3.1 Solar Disinfection of Water 72
3.1.1 Solar Spectrum and SODIS Method 72
3.1.2 Oxidative Stress Caused by UV Radiation 73
3.2 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water 75
3.2.1 Mechanisms of TiO2 Photocatalytic Disinfection 75
3.2.2 Microbiological Aspects of Photocatalytic Disinfection 77
3.2.3 Inactivation of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria 80
3.3 Novel Photocatalytic Materials for Visible Light Activity 82
3.3.1 Doped Materials 83
3.3.2 Other New Materials 83
3.4 Solar Photocatalytic Reactors for Water Disinfection 85
3.5 Conclusions 87
References 88
Chapter 4 - Solar Photocatalysis: Fundamentals, Reactors and Applications 92
4.1 Solar Light 92
4.1.1 Extraterrestrial Irradiance and Spectrum 93
4.1.2 Solar Vector 95
4.1.3 Irradiance at the Earth Surface 96
4.2 Solar Photocatalytic Reactors 102
4.2.1 Types of Reactors 102
4.2.2 Design of Solar Photocatalytic Reactors 103
4.2.3 Solar Reactors for Water Disinfection 104
4.2.3.1 Illuminated Photo-Reactor Volume 104
4.2.3.2 Photocatalyst Configuration 105
4.2.3.3 Flow Rate, Water Temperature, and Dissolved Oxygen 106
4.3 Photocatalytic Materials for Solar Applications 108
4.3.1 Titanium Dioxide 108
4.3.2 TiO2 Modification for Solar Applications 109
4.3.2.1 Doping of TiO2 109
4.3.2.2 Semiconductor Coupling 112
4.3.2.3 Dye Sensitization 112
4.3.3 Mode of Utilisation 113
4.4 Applications of Solar Photocatalysis 116
4.4.1 Non-Concentrating Solar Reactors Applications 117
4.4.2 CPC Solar Reactors Applications 117
4.5 Integration with Other Unit Operations 120
Acknowledgements 123
References 123
Chapter 5 - Combined Photocatalysis–Separation Processes for Water Treatment Using Hybrid Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors 130
5.1 Introduction 130
5.2 TiO2 and Application for Water Treatment 132
5.3 Separation Process with Ceramic Membrane 135
5.4 Fabrication of TiO2-Coated Ceramic Membrane 137
5.5 Performance of Photocatalytic Ceramic Membrane 141
5.6 Future Outlook and Challenges 150
References 151
Chapter 6 - Process Integration. Concepts of Integration and Coupling of Photocatalysis with Other Processes 157
6.1 Introduction 157
6.2 Treatment of Biorecalcitrant Wastewater by Integrating Solar Photocatalysis and Other Processes 159
6.3 Partially Biorecalcitrant Wastewater Treatment by Integrating Solar Photocatalysis and Other Processes 165
6.4 Removal of Micropollutants in Water and Wastewater by Integrating Solar Photocatalysis and Membrane Nanofiltration 167
6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 171
Acknowledgements 171
References 172
Chapter 7 - Photocatalytic Purification and Disinfection of Air 174
7.1 Introduction 174
7.2 Photocatalytic Reactions for Air Purification 177
7.3 Photocatalysts and Their Supports for Air Purification 180
7.4 Kinetics of Photocatalytic Oxidation 184
7.5 Photocatalytic Destruction of Microbiological Objects 189
7.6 Reactors for Photocatalytic Air Treatment 190
7.7 Combined Methods of Air Purification 194
7.8 Conclusions 197
List of Abbreviations and Designations 197
Acknowledgements 197
References 197
Chapter 8 - Self-Cleaning Photocatalytic Activity: Materials and Applications 204
8.1 Introduction to Self-Cleaning Materials 204
8.2 Mechanism of Self-Cleaning Activity 205
8.2.1 Light-Induced Hydroxylation of the Surface 209
8.2.2 Photo-Oxidation of Adsorbed Hydrocarbons on the Surface 210
8.3 Photocatalytic Materials 211
8.3.1 Titanium Dioxide 211
8.3.2 Rapid Testing of Self-Cleaning Photocatalytic Activity 212
8.3.3 Photocatalytic Antibacterial Activity 213
8.4 Semiconductor Doping and TiO2/SiO2 Composites 214
8.4.1 Self-Cleaning Activity 214
8.4.2 Antireflective Properties 216
8.4.3 Metal Doped Coatings 219
8.5 Semiconductor Hybrids and Future Materials 220
8.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Hybrids of TiO2 or ZnO 220
8.5.2 Graphene Hybrids of Metal Oxides 221
8.5.3 Graphene/TiO2 Nanohybrids 222
8.5.4 ZnO/Graphene Nanohybrids 224
8.5.5 TiO2/β Cyclodextrin Encapsulated Fullerene (C60) Composites 224
8.5.6 Conducting Polyaniline/Metal Oxide or Graphene Oxide Hybrids 225
8.6 Self-Cleaning and Superhydrophilic Coating on Polymer Substrates 226
8.7 Commercial Materials 227
Acknowledgements 228
References 228
Chapter 9 - Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis for Energy Generation Using PhotoFuelCells 236
9.1 Introduction 236
9.2 Basic Features of PhotoFuelCell Operation 239
9.3 PhotoFuelCell Configurations and Related Applications 243
9.4 Selected Results and Discussion 245
9.4.1 PFC Used for Electricity Production Employing Ethanol as Organic Fuel 245
9.4.2 PFC Used Exclusively for Hydrogen Production Employing Ethanol as Organic Fuel 250
9.5 Experimental Section: Construction of Electrodes and Devices 250
9.5.1 Materials 250
9.5.2 Preparation of TiO2 Films and Deposition of CdS by the SILAR Method 251
9.5.3 Construction of the Counter Electrode 252
9.5.4 Device (Reactor) Construction 252
9.5.5 Measurements 253
Acknowledgements 253
References 253
Chapter 10 - Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation 255
10.1 Introduction 255
10.2 Fundamentals of Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation 257
10.2.1 Thermodynamics of Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation 257
10.2.2 Materials and Systems for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production 259
10.2.2.1 Materials for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production 259
10.2.2.2 Systems for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production 260
10.2.3 Mechanisms and Processes of Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production 264
10.3 Promoted Charge Separation and Transport 265
10.3.1 Improvement of the Crystallinity 265
10.3.2 Rational Design of Nanostructures 266
10.3.3 Application of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 268
10.3.4 Manipulation of Internal Electric Fields 274
10.4 Accelerated H2-Evolution Kinetics 277
10.4.1 Increasing the Active Surface Areas 277
10.4.2 Loading of H2-Evolution Co-Catalysts 278
10.4.3 Elevation of Conduction Band Positions 283
10.5 Increased Stability of Photocatalyst 285
10.5.1 Addition of Sacrificial Reagents 285
10.5.2 Introduction of a Protective Layer 287
10.5.3 Utilization of Water Oxidation Co-Catalysts 288
10.6 Conclusions, Perspectives and Remarks 289
Acknowledgements 290
References 290
Chapter 11 - New Synthetic Routes in Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 303
11.1 Introduction 303
11.2 Reactions 304
11.2.1 Oxidations 305
11.2.1.1 Oxidation of Alcohols to Aldehydes 305
11.2.1.2 Hydroxylation of Aromatics 306
11.2.1.3 Alkenes Epoxidation 310
11.2.1.4 Propene Hydration 312
11.2.2 Reductions 313
11.2.2.1 Carbonyl Reduction 314
11.2.2.2 C=C Double Bonds Reduction 315
11.2.2.3 Reduction of N-Containing Functions 315
11.2.3 Alkylations 321
11.2.3.1 Conjugate Addition Reactions 322
11.2.3.2 Cross-Coupling Reactions 324
11.2.3.3 Aromatic Substitution Reactions 325
11.2.3.4 Carbonyl α-Alkylation Reactions 326
11.2.3.5 Amine α-Alkylation Reactions via Iminium Cation 327
11.3 Influence of Catalyst Properties on Selectivity 328
11.4 Green Organic Solvents in Photocatalysis 333
11.5 Conclusion 337
References 337
Chapter 12 - An Overview of the Potential Applications of TiO2 Photocatalysis for Food Packaging, Medical Implants, and Chemical Compound Delivery 345
12.1 Introduction 345
12.2 Potential Advantages of TiO2 Photocatalysis for Food Packaging 346
12.2.1 Generalities 346
12.2.2 Effect of TiO2 on the Package Physical Properties 347
12.2.3 Effect of TiO2 on the Package Antibacterial Properties 347
12.2.4 Effect of TiO2 on the Concentrations of C2H4 and O2 in Packages 350
12.2.5 Potential Barriers to the Use of TiO2 in Packages 353
12.3 Roles of TiO2 and TiO2 Photocatalysis in Medical Implants 353
12.3.1 Role of Non-UV-Irradiated TiO2 353
12.3.2 Roles of UV-Irradiated TiO2 354
12.4 Potential Use of TiO2 Photocatalysis for Chemical Compound Delivery 356
12.4.1 Generalities 356
12.4.2 Use of TiO2 Nanotubes Containing the Chemical to be Delivered 357
12.4.3 Use of TiO2 Photocatalysis to Deliver Chemicals Contained in Microcapsules 360
12.4.4 Issues About the Use of TiO2 Photocatalysis for Delivery of Chemicals 362
12.5 Conclusions 363
12.5.1 Food Packaging 363
12.5.2 Medical Implants 363
12.5.3 Chemical Compound Delivery 364
12.5.4 Comparisons About the Viability of These Three Applications 364
References 365
Subject Index 368