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Photocatalysis

Photocatalysis

Jenny Schneider | Detlef Bahnemann | Jinhua Ye | Gianluca Li Puma | Dionysios D Dionysiou

(2016)

Abstract

Combining the basic concepts of photocatalysis with the synthesis of new catalysts, reactor and reaction engineering, this book provides a comprehensive resource on the topic. The book introduces the fundamental aspects of photocatalysis including the role of surface chemistry and understanding the chemistry of photocatalytic processes before exploring the theory and experimental studies of charge carrier dynamics. Specific chapters then cover new materials for the degradation of organics; water splitting and CO2 reduction; as well as reactor and reaction engineering. Researchers new to this discipline can learn the first principles, whilst experienced researchers can gain further information about aspects in photocatalysis beyond their area of expertise. Together with Photocatalysis: Applications, these volumes provide a complete overview to photocatalysis.

Detlef Bahnemann is a Professor at the Institute for Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany, and Director of the Laboratory for Photoactive Nanocomposite Materials at Saint-Petersburg State University, Russia. He has worked in the field of photocatalysis for over 30 years.

Jenny Schneider is a Researcher at the Institute for Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany. She is a specialist in time-resolved investigations of photocatalytic processes.

Jinhua Ye is Managing Director for the Photo-Catalytic Materials Center (PCMC) at the National Institute for Materials Science, Japan. Her research is dedicated to developing new photocatalytic materials for environment preservation.

Gianluca Li Puma is Professor of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at Loughborough University, UK. He is an expert in reaction and reactor engineering, including photochemical and photocatalytic systems.

Dionysios D. Dionysiou is a Professor in the Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE), University of Cincinnati, USA. He has over 20 years of experience in the field of photocatalysis.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Photocatalysis Fundamentals and Perspectives i
Preface v
Contents ix
Part 1 - Fundamental Aspects of Photocatalysis 1
Chapter 1 - Photoelectrochemistry: From Basic Principles to Photocatalysis 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 A Brief Summary of Semiconductor Physics 4
1.3 Conventional Semiconductor Photoelectrodes 6
1.3.1 Potential and Charge Distribution Across the Semiconductor–Inert Electrolyte Junction 6
1.3.2 The Semiconductor–Redox Electrolyte Junction 9
1.3.3 The Semiconductor–Electrolyte Junction Under Illumination 13
1.3.4 Quasi-Fermi Levels (QFLs) 15
1.4 Nanostructured Semiconductor Electrodes and Colloidal Particles in the Dark 17
1.4.1 Band Bending in Nanostructures 17
1.4.2 Determination of Quasi-Fermi Level Positions in Nanoparticle Suspensions 19
1.5 Surface States and Fermi Level Pinning 20
1.6 Surface Recombination 22
1.7 Charge Compensation and Charge Trapping in Mesoporous Electrodes 25
1.8 Conclusions 25
References 26
Chapter 2 - Understanding the Chemistry of Photocatalytic Processes 29
2.1 Thermodynamic Constraints for Photocatalytic Processes 29
2.2 Single and Multiple Electron Transfer Reactions 35
2.3 Role of the Substrate Structure in the Photocatalytic Process 37
2.4 Importance of the Reduction Pathway in Photocatalytic Oxidation Reactions 40
2.5 Importance of the Oxidation Pathway in Photocatalytic Reduction Reactions 45
2.6 Conclusions 48
References 48
Chapter 3 - Current Issues Concerning the Mechanism of Pristine TiO2 Photocatalysis and the Effects on Photonic Crystal Nanostructures 51
3.1 Photocatalysis and Sustainability 51
3.2 The Basic Principle of TiO2 Photocatalysis 53
3.3 Current Mechanisms 57
3.3.1 Antenna Mechanism 57
3.3.2 Deaggregation of Particle Agglomerates 59
3.3.3 Band-Gap Coupling: Z-Scheme and Heterojunctions 61
3.3.4 Wettability 64
3.3.4.1 Creation of OH Surface Groups 64
3.3.4.2 Impurities Removal 66
3.3.4.3 Adsorbed and Desorbed Water 68
3.3.4.4 Some Remarks About Wettability 69
3.3.5 Photo-Thermal Desorption of Water 69
3.4 TiO2 Photonic Crystal Nanostructures 70
3.5 Concluding Remarks 74
References 76
Chapter 4 - Specificity in Photocatalysis 80
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 Mass Transport to the Photocatalyst and Adsorption 82
4.2.1 Complexation in the Fluid Phase 83
4.2.2 Surface Charge Effects 84
4.2.3 Overcoating the Photocatalyst 85
4.2.4 Adsorb & Shuttle 86
4.2.5 Doping 93
4.2.6 Selection by Size 94
4.2.7 Molecular Imprinting 95
4.3 The Redox Reaction 99
4.3.1 Recombination Versus Interfacial Electron Transfer 99
4.3.2 Doping as a Means to Control Oxidation Versus Reduction 99
4.3.3 Shifting the Location of Energy Bands 100
4.3.4 Co-Existing Compounds as a Means to Alter Specificity 100
4.3.5 Utilizing Specific Adsorbate–Adsorbent Interactions 101
4.3.6 Surface Derivatization 101
4.3.7 Sensitization as a Means to Induce Specificity 102
4.4 Desorption of Products 103
4.4.1 Preferential Desorption from Imprinted Photocatalysts 103
4.4.2 Effect of Solvents on the Desorption of Intermediate Products 104
4.4.3 Surface Derivatization for Controlling the Distribution of Products 105
4.5 Summary and Perspectives 106
References 106
Chapter 5 - Photoexcitation in Pure and Modified Semiconductor Photocatalysts 110
5.1 Band-Gap Excitation of Semiconductor Photocatalysts 110
5.2 Photoexcitation of Impurity-Doped Semiconductors 112
5.3 Photoexcitation of Coupled Semiconductors 115
5.4 Dye-Sensitized Semiconductors and Dye Discoloration 117
5.5 LMCT-Sensitized Semiconductors 119
5.6 Photoexcitation at Metal/Semiconductor Interfaces 121
5.7 Conclusions 124
Acknowledgements 124
References 124
Chapter 6 - New Concepts in Photocatalysis 129
6.1 Introduction 129
6.2 Graphene 130
6.3 Carbon Nitride 134
6.4 Z-Scheme Photocatalytic Systems 139
6.4.1 Z-Scheme Systems with Redox Mediator 140
6.4.2 Z-Scheme Systems Without Redox Mediator 142
6.5 Plasmonic Photocatalysis 147
6.6 New Applications of Photocatalysis 153
6.7 Perspectives 156
References 157
Part 2 - Primary Processes in Photocatalysis 163
Chapter 7 - Kinetic Processes in the Presence of Photogenerated Charge Carriers 165
7.1 Outline of the Processes in Photocatalysis 165
7.1.1 Environmental Clean-up or Solar Hydrogen Production 165
7.1.2 Energy Levels of TiO2 and Water 166
7.1.3 Adsorption of Water Molecules 167
7.2 Primary Processes of Photogenerated Charge Carriers 169
7.2.1 Trapping of Free Charge Carriers 169
7.2.2 Trapped Electrons and Reduction of O2 171
7.2.3 Trapped Holes and Oxidation of Alcohols 172
7.3 Kinetic Processes at Pure TiO2 Photocatalysts 172
7.3.1 O2 Production at Rutile Surfaces 172
7.3.2 •OH Radical Formation over Rutile and Anatase Photocatalysts 173
7.3.3 Kinetics of Methanol Oxidation 176
7.4 Modified TiO2 Photocatalysts for Visible Light Response 178
7.4.1 Copper(ii) deposited TiO2 and WO3 178
7.4.2 Iron(iii)-deposited Ru-doped TiO2 179
7.4.3 Platinum Complex Sensitized TiO2 180
7.4.4 Gold-Nanoparticle Deposited TiO2 181
References 182
Chapter 8 - Traps and Interfaces in Photocatalysis: Model Studies on TiO2 Particle Systems 185
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 The Solid–Gas Interface: Trapping Sites and Spectroscopic Manifestations 188
8.2.1 Trapped Electrons 188
8.2.2 Trapped Holes 192
8.2.3 Trapped Hydrogen 193
8.2.4 Trapped Charges and Optical Fingerprints 194
8.3 Slow Charge Trapping and Charge Carrier Quantification at the Solid–Gas Interface 195
8.4 From Solid (Particle)–Gas to Solid (Particle)–Liquid Interfaces: Changes on Different Size Scales 199
8.5 Microstructural Changes of Particle Ensembles and Solid–Solid Interface Formation 201
8.6 Charge Separation and Trapping at the Solid–Liquid Interface – Slow Processes 204
8.7 Summary and Outlook 209
Acknowledgements 211
References 211
Chapter 9 - Interplay Between Physical and Chemical Events in Photoprocesses in Heterogeneous Systems 218
9.1 Introduction 218
9.2 Physical and Chemical Relaxation through Surface-Active Centers 223
9.3 Photoinduced Defect Formation 226
9.4 Interconnection Between the Activity and Selectivity of Photocatalysts 230
9.4.1 Activity of Photocatalysts 230
9.4.2 Selectivity of Photocatalysts 235
9.5 Concluding Remarks 243
Acknowledgements 243
References 243
Part 3 - New Materials 245
Chapter 10 - New Materials: Outline 247
References 249
Chapter 11 - New Materials for Degradation of Organics 252
11.1 Basic Characterizations by which to Judge a New Material as Photocatalyst 253
11.1.1 Dark and Light Experiments 253
11.1.2 Wavelength-Dependence Test 254
11.1.3 Evidence for Catalytic Process 255
11.2 Typical New Materials for Photodegradation of Organics 256
11.2.1 New-Generation TiO2-Based Materials 256
11.2.2 Photocatalysts Comprising d-Block Elements 261
11.2.2.1 Photocatalysts with d0-Block Elements 261
11.2.2.1.1 Ti-Based Materials. 261
11.2.2.1.2 V, Nb, Ta-Containing Materials. 261
11.2.2.1.3 Mo, W-Containing Materials. 263
11.2.2.2 Photocatalysts with d10-Block Elements 263
11.2.2.2.1 Cu-Containing Materials. 263
11.2.2.2.2 Ag-Based Materials. 263
11.2.2.2.3 Zn, Cd-Containing Materials. 264
11.2.3 Photocatalysts Containing p-Block Elements 265
11.2.3.1 Sn, Pb-Included Materials 265
11.2.3.2 Bi-Based Materials 273
11.2.4 Organic Photocatalysts 273
11.2.4.1 C3N4-Based Materials 274
11.2.4.2 Metal–Organic Framework (MOF) Materials 275
11.2.4.3 Other Materials 275
11.2.5 Composite and Heterojunction Photocatalysts 275
11.2.5.1 Photosensitizer@Active Material Composites or Heterojunctions 275
11.2.5.2 Band-Structure Matched p–n or n–n Heterojunctions 281
11.2.5.3 Conductive Material@Semiconductor Composites or Heterojunctions 281
11.3 Photodegradation Mechanism 281
11.3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor-Based Photocatalysis or Dye-Sensitized Photocatalysis 286
11.3.2 Reactive Species Analysis 287
11.4 Summary and Prospects 289
References 289
Chapter 12 - New Materials for Water Splitting 295
12.1 Introduction 295
12.1.1 Research Background 295
12.1.2 Basic Principles of Water Splitting on a Semiconductor Particle 296
12.1.3 Development of Visible-Light-Responsive Photocatalysts for Overall Water Splitting 299
12.1.4 Scope of This Chapter 301
12.2 Modified Oxynitrides for Efficient Water Splitting 301
12.2.1 Surface Modified Tantalum Oxynitrides with Zr(iv) Species for Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution 302
12.2.2 Oxynitrides Modified with Cobalt Oxide for Highly Efficient Water Oxidation 306
12.3 Metal Oxide Based Photocatalysts for Overall Water Splitting 307
12.3.1 Doped SrTiO3 308
12.3.2 Dye-Sensitized Lamellar Niobate for Z-Scheme Water Splitting 312
12.4 Summary and Outlook 314
References 315
Chapter 13 - New Materials for CO2 Photoreduction 318
13.1 Introduction 318
13.2 Basic Principles of Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 319
13.3 Materials for CO2 Photoreduction 322
13.3.1 Metal Oxides with d0 and d10 Electronic Configurations 322
13.3.2 Metal Sulfides and Phosphides 324
13.3.3 Other Materials 325
13.4 Strategies for Designing Effective Photocatalytic Materials 325
13.4.1 Surface Sites for Reactant Adsorption and Chemical Reaction 326
13.4.1.1 Porous Structure with Large Surface Area 326
13.4.1.2 Optimized Surface Reactivity via Facet Engineering 328
13.4.1.3 Surface Modification 330
13.4.1.4 Surface Oxygen Vacancy 331
13.4.2 Light Harvesting for Effectively Utilizing Solar Energy 331
13.4.2.1 Ion Doping 331
13.4.2.2 Solid Solutions 332
13.4.2.3 Sensitization 333
13.4.3 Charge Separation for Effectively Utilizing Solar Energy 333
13.4.3.1 Loading Co-Catalysts 333
13.4.3.2 One-Dimensional Nanostructures 335
13.4.3.3 Heterojunction Construction 336
13.4.3.4 Z-Scheme CO2 Reduction 336
13.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 337
References 337
Part 4 - Reactor and Reaction Engineering 349
Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Radiation Transport in Absorbing Scattering Media 351
14.1 Introduction 351
14.2 Definitions 352
14.2.1 Radiation Intensity 353
14.2.2 Incident Radiation 353
14.2.3 Local Volumetric Rate of Photon Absorption (LVRPA) 354
14.2.4 Net Radiation Flux 354
14.2.5 Local Surface Rate of Photon Absorption (LSRPA) 354
14.3 The Radiative Transport Equation (RTE) 355
14.4 Boundary Conditions for the RTE 357
14.4.1 Extended Source with Superficial Emission (ESSE) 358
14.4.2 Extended Source with Voluminal Emission (ESVE) 358
14.4.3 Solar Radiation 360
14.4.4 Chemical Actinometry 361
14.5 Solution Methods of the RTE 363
Acknowledgements 364
References 365
Chapter 15 - Photocatalytic Reactor Design 367
15.1 Predictive Design of Photocatalytic Reactors 367
15.2 Optical Properties of Photocatalytic Suspensions and Films 369
15.3 Radiation Field Inside the Reactor 373
15.4 Photocatalytic Efficiencies 373
15.4.1 Quantum Yield and Quantum Efficiency 373
15.4.2 Photonic Yield and Photonic Efficiency 374
15.5 Kinetic Modeling 375
15.6 Mass Balance Equations 377
15.7 Case Study: Photocatalytic Oxidation of Cyanide with TiO2/SiO2 Materials 378
15.7.1 Experimental Determination of the Optical Properties of the Materials 378
15.7.2 Estimation of the Quantum Efficiency 379
15.7.3 Development of a Suitable Intrinsic Kinetic Model 382
15.7.4 Scaling-Up of the Process to a Larger Photocatalytic Reactor 383
Acknowledgements 386
References 387
Chapter 16 - Photocatalytic Reactor Modeling 388
16.1 Introduction 388
16.2 Radiation Field Evaluation 390
16.3 Emission Model (Lamps) 390
16.4 Solar Emission Model 391
16.5 Photon Absorption–Scattering Model: Evaluation of the Local Volumetric Rate of Photon Absorption, LVRPA 393
16.5.1 Two-Flux and Six-Flux Absorption–Scattering Models 394
16.6 Application of SFM in Flat-Plate Photoreactors 397
16.7 Application of SFM in Solar CPC and FPR Reactors 399
16.8 Photocatalytic Reaction Kinetics Model 401
16.9 Generalized Model 405
16.10 Thin-Film Slurry Photocatalytic Reactors 408
16.11 Kinetic Parameters Optimization 412
16.12 Application of Models to the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Compounds in Water 414
16.12.1 DCA Solar Photodegradation 415
16.12.2 Phenol and 4-Chlorophenol Solar Photodegradation 416
16.13 Photodegradation of Organic Mixtures 418
References 420
Subject Index 425