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Book Details
Abstract
The concise, easy-to-understand Neurology for the Speech-Language Pathologist, 6th Edition provides students and clinicians with a practical guide for the study and understanding of neurology in speech-language pathology (SLP). Correlated with clinical syndromes and diseases seen in SLP, it gives you a solid understanding of the nervous system, including: development of the nervous system, organization of the brain, protective mechanisms, descending motor and ascending sensory pathways, and cranial nerves. New content, case studies, and a strong clinical focus make this new edition essential as you move into practice.
- Case studies and clinical applications in clinically oriented chapters provide you with realistic clinical applications.
- Presents complex information clearly in a concise, easy-to-understand manner.
- Clinical emphasis throughout makes this text valuable as you move into clinical practice — and prepare for the Praxis exam.
- Evolve companion website has vocabulary flashcards and study questions with answers so students can assess their knowledge.
- Key terms in each chapter and an end-of-text glossary give you easy access to accurate, concise definitions.
- NEW! Separate section on pediatric speech and language disorders , including a chapter on the developing brain.
- EXPANDED! Updated sections on neurodiagnostic and neuroimaging procedures, as well as childhood apraxia of speech, fluency disorders, Autism, and TBI.
- NEW! Updated discussion of the anatomy and function of the cerebellum gives you the most current information.
- UPDATED! Covers the latest neuroimaging research on anatomy, physiology, and disorders of speech-language.
- EXPANDED! Discusses the brain connectivity and the neural network underlying learning and language.
- EXPANDED! Addresses motor control for speech production so you stay in the know.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| IFC | ES1 | ||
| Neurology for the Speech-Language Pathologist | iii | ||
| Copyright | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Acknowledgments | vii | ||
| Foreword | ix | ||
| Preface | xi | ||
| Introduction | xi | ||
| Background | xi | ||
| Audience | xi | ||
| Concept and Importance to the Profession | xi | ||
| Organization | xi | ||
| Distinctive Features | xii | ||
| Learning Aids | xii | ||
| Ancillary Materials | xii | ||
| For Instructors | xii | ||
| For Students | xii | ||
| Contents | xv | ||
| 1 - Introduction to Speech-Language Neurology | 1 | ||
| Why Neurology? | 2 | ||
| Recent Contributors to the Study of Neurologic Communication Disorders | 3 | ||
| EARLY LANGUAGE MODELS | 5 | ||
| WORLD WAR I | 6 | ||
| MODERN TIMES | 6 | ||
| Directions and Planes | 7 | ||
| How to Study | 8 | ||
| 2 - Organization of the Nervous System I | 13 | ||
| Human Communication Nervous System | 14 | ||
| FOUNDATIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM | 14 | ||
| The Chemical Makeup of Nerve Cells | 15 | ||
| The Structure and Function of Neurons | 16 | ||
| Neuroglia | 18 | ||
| Gray Matter | 19 | ||
| ORGANIZATION | 19 | ||
| Central Nervous System | 20 | ||
| CORTICAL DIVISIONS | 20 | ||
| Cortical Localization Maps | 20 | ||
| Cerebral Lobes | 20 | ||
| Frontal Lobe | 21 | ||
| Parietal Lobe | 24 | ||
| Temporal Lobe | 24 | ||
| Occipital Lobe | 25 | ||
| Perisylvian Zone | 25 | ||
| CEREBRAL CONNECTIONS | 25 | ||
| Why Is This Important for Speech-Language Pathology? | 25 | ||
| Projection Fibers | 25 | ||
| Association Fibers | 25 | ||
| Commissural Fibers | 26 | ||
| Split-Brain Research | 27 | ||
| SPECIFIC CORTICAL AREAS | 29 | ||
| PRIMARY MOTOR PROJECTION CORTEX | 29 | ||
| PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX | 29 | ||
| PRIMARY AUDITORY RECEPTOR CORTEX | 29 | ||
| PRIMARY VISUAL RECEPTOR CORTEX | 29 | ||
| PRIMARY OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CORTEX | 29 | ||
| Association Cortex | 30 | ||
| Specific Association Areas | 30 | ||
| Cortical Motor Speech Association Areas. | 30 | ||
| Sensory Association Areas | 30 | ||
| Categories of Association Cortex | 30 | ||
| The Limbic System | 31 | ||
| Cortical-Like Tissue | 31 | ||
| Parahippocampal and Hippocampal Gyri | 32 | ||
| Limbic and Paralimbic Structures | 32 | ||
| Other Structures of the Central Nervous System | 33 | ||
| Why Is This Important for Speech-Language Pathology? | 33 | ||
| Diencephalon | 33 | ||
| Thalamus | 33 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 34 | ||
| Epithalamus and Subthalamus | 34 | ||
| Basal Ganglia | 34 | ||
| The Striatum | 35 | ||
| Substantia Nigra | 35 | ||
| Subthalamic Nucleus | 35 | ||
| CEREBELLUM AND BRAINSTEM | 36 | ||
| Cerebellum | 37 | ||
| Brainstem | 37 | ||
| Internal Anatomy of the Brainstem | 37 | ||
| SPINAL CORD | 39 | ||
| Reflexes | 40 | ||
| 3 - Organization of the Nervous System II | 44 | ||
| Peripheral Nervous System | 45 | ||
| SPINAL NERVES | 45 | ||
| CRANIAL NERVES | 48 | ||
| Autonomic Nervous System | 48 | ||
| Protection and Nourishment of the Brain | 50 | ||
| MENINGES | 50 | ||
| VENTRICULAR SYSTEM | 52 | ||
| CEREBROSPINAL FLUID | 53 | ||
| BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN | 56 | ||
| Internal Carotid Arteries and Their Branches | 57 | ||
| Vertebral Artery and Its Branches | 58 | ||
| Circle of Willis | 58 | ||
| General Principles of Neurologic Organization | 59 | ||
| CONTRALATERAL MOTOR CONTROL | 59 | ||
| IPSILATERAL MOTOR CONTROL | 59 | ||
| BILATERAL SPEECH MOTOR CONTROL | 59 | ||
| UNILATERAL LANGUAGE MECHANISMS | 60 | ||
| SCHEME OF CORTICAL ORGANIZATION | 61 | ||
| Neurodiagnostic Studies in Speech and Language | 63 | ||
| STATIC BRAIN IMAGING | 63 | ||
| DYNAMIC OR FUNCTIONAL BRAIN IMAGING | 66 | ||
| MEASURES OF NEURAL CONNECTIVITY | 67 | ||
| MEASURES OF TIMING OF NEURAL ACTIVITY | 68 | ||
| Electroencephalography | 68 | ||
| Evoked Potentials | 68 | ||
| Magnetoencephalography | 69 | ||
| VASCULAR IMAGING | 69 | ||
| TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER | 69 | ||
| CEREBRAL ANGIOGRAPHY AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY | 69 | ||
| SUMMARY OF NEUROIMAGING | 69 | ||
| OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN COMMUNICATION NERVOUS SYSTEM | 69 | ||
| Appendix 3-1 | 72 | ||
| 4 - Neuronal Function in the Nervous System | 74 | ||
| Neuronal Physiology | 75 | ||
| NEURON | 75 | ||
| CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CELLS | 77 | ||
| IONIC CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS | 78 | ||
| ELECTRICAL FORCES | 80 | ||
| Cellular Potential | 81 | ||
| NEURAL MESSAGING | 81 | ||
| GRADED POTENTIALS | 81 | ||
| HYPERPOLARIZATION | 82 | ||
| ACTION POTENTIAL | 82 | ||
| Myelin | 83 | ||
| MYELIN DISORDERS | 83 | ||
| The Synapse | 83 | ||
| NEUROTRANSMITTERS | 87 | ||
| CHEMICAL TRANSMISSION IN THE MOTOR SYSTEM | 87 | ||
| ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES (GAP JUNCTIONS) | 88 | ||
| Principles of Neuronal Operation | 89 | ||
| DEGENERATION AND REGENERATION OF NEURONS AND THEIR CONNECTIONS | 90 | ||
| Degeneration | 90 | ||
| Regeneration | 90 | ||
| Central Nervous System Regeneration | 91 | ||
| 5 - Neurosensory Organization | 93 | ||
| Classification | 94 | ||
| SHERRINGTON’S SCHEME | 94 | ||
| SENSORY ASSOCIATION CORTICES | 94 | ||
| The Sense of Hearing | 95 | ||
| RECEPTOR LEVEL | 96 | ||
| CRANIAL NERVE LEVEL | 97 | ||
| BRAINSTEM LEVEL | 98 | ||
| AUDITORY RADIATIONS AND CORTEX | 98 | ||
| AUDITORY PHYSIOLOGY | 98 | ||
| LESIONS OF THE AUDITORY SYSTEM | 99 | ||
| The Sense of Touch | 100 | ||
| SOMATIC SENSATION | 100 | ||
| Lateral Spinothalamic Tract | 100 | ||
| Anterior Spinothalamic Tract | 100 | ||
| Effect of Damage | 101 | ||
| Proprioception Pathways | 101 | ||
| Spinocerebellar Tract | 101 | ||
| Dorsal Columns | 101 | ||
| Proprioceptive Deficits | 102 | ||
| Sensory Examination | 102 | ||
| LIGHT TOUCH | 103 | ||
| TWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION | 103 | ||
| PAIN AND TEMPERATURE | 103 | ||
| RECOGNITION OF LIMB POSITION | 103 | ||
| STEREOGNOSIS | 103 | ||
| VIBRATORY SENSIBILITY TEST | 103 | ||
| BODY SWAY TEST | 103 | ||
| Neuroanatomy of Oral Sensation | 104 | ||
| Oral Sensory Receptors | 104 | ||
| The Sense of Vision | 104 | ||
| RETINA | 104 | ||
| PATH OF THE OPTIC NERVE | 105 | ||
| PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX | 106 | ||
| VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX | 106 | ||
| VISUAL INTEGRATION | 107 | ||
| VISUAL AGNOSIA | 108 | ||
| 6 - Neuromotor Control of Speech | 110 | ||
| Speech Production versus Limb and Trunk Movement | 111 | ||
| THE MOTOR SYSTEM IN SPEECH ONTOGENY | 111 | ||
| A Hierarchical System | 112 | ||
| MOTOR PLANNING | 112 | ||
| Premotor and Supplementary Motor Areas | 112 | ||
| Broca’s Area | 113 | ||
| The Insula | 113 | ||
| TRUNK AND LIMB MOVEMENT: THE CORTICOSPINAL TRACT | 114 | ||
| Decussation | 115 | ||
| Brainstem Centers for Tone and Posture | 115 | ||
| FACIAL AND ORAL MOVEMENT: THE CORTICONUCLEAR TRACT | 116 | ||
| Upper and Lower Motor Neurons | 116 | ||
| UPPER MOTOR NEURONS (UMNS) | 116 | ||
| LOWER MOTOR NEURONS | 117 | ||
| BILATERAL SYMMETRY | 118 | ||
| Contralateral and Unilateral Innervation | 118 | ||
| INDICATORS OF UPPER VERSUS LOWER MOTOR NEURON DAMAGE | 119 | ||
| Paralysis, Paresis, and Plegia | 120 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Signs and Symptoms | 120 | ||
| Other Confirmatory Signs | 121 | ||
| Lower Motor Neuron Signs and Symptoms | 121 | ||
| A Pause to Review | 122 | ||
| NEUROMUSCULAR CONTROL | 123 | ||
| Alpha Motor Neurons | 123 | ||
| Muscle Spindles | 125 | ||
| Gamma Motor Neurons | 126 | ||
| Golgi Tendon Organs | 126 | ||
| A Pause to Review | 126 | ||
| The Influence of Other Systems on Movement | 127 | ||
| THE BASAL GANGLIA (OR BASAL NUCLEI) | 127 | ||
| Damage to the Basal Ganglia | 129 | ||
| Dyskinesia | 129 | ||
| Tremors | 129 | ||
| Chorea | 130 | ||
| Athetosis | 130 | ||
| Dystonia | 130 | ||
| Myoclonus | 130 | ||
| Orofacial Dyskinesia (Tardive Dyskinesia) | 130 | ||
| THE CEREBELLAR SYSTEM | 131 | ||
| Anatomy of the Cerebellum | 131 | ||
| Three Cerebellar Lobes | 131 | ||
| Longitudinal Zones and Deep Nuclei | 132 | ||
| Synergy and Asynergy | 132 | ||
| Cerebellar Peduncles and Pathways | 132 | ||
| Cerebellar Role in Speech | 133 | ||
| Clinical Signs of Cerebellar Dysfunction | 133 | ||
| Ataxia | 134 | ||
| Decomposition of Movement | 134 | ||
| Dysmetria | 134 | ||
| Adiadochokinesia or Dysdiadochokinesia | 134 | ||
| Rebound | 134 | ||
| Hypotonia | 134 | ||
| Tremor | 134 | ||
| Nystagmus | 134 | ||
| Muscle Stretch Reflexes | 134 | ||
| Dysarthria | 134 | ||
| A Pause to Review | 134 | ||
| Servomechanism Theory and Speech Motor Control | 135 | ||
| FEEDBACK | 135 | ||
| OPEN AND CLOSED CONTROL SYSTEMS | 135 | ||
| 7 - The Cranial Nerves | 140 | ||
| Origin of the Cranial Nerves | 141 | ||
| NAMES AND NUMBERS | 141 | ||
| EMBRYOLOGIC ORIGIN | 141 | ||
| THE CORTICONUCLEAR TRACT AND THE CRANIAL NERVES | 142 | ||
| Cranial Nerves for Smell and Vision | 142 | ||
| Cranial Nerves for Speech and Hearing | 143 | ||
| Anatomy | 143 | ||
| Innervation | 143 | ||
| Function | 143 | ||
| Testing | 143 | ||
| CRANIAL NERVE VII: FACIAL | 144 | ||
| Anatomy | 144 | ||
| Innervation | 145 | ||
| Function | 145 | ||
| Testing | 145 | ||
| CRANIAL NERVE VIII: ACOUSTIC-VESTIBULAR OR VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR | 146 | ||
| Anatomy | 146 | ||
| Innervation | 147 | ||
| Function | 147 | ||
| Testing | 147 | ||
| CRANIAL NERVE IX: GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL | 148 | ||
| 8 - Clinical Speech Syndromes of the Motor Systems | 160 | ||
| Dysarthrias | 161 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Lesions | 161 | ||
| UNILATERAL UPPER MOTOR NEURON DYSARTHRIA | 162 | ||
| 9 - Central Language Mechanism and Learning | 181 | ||
| Neocortex | 182 | ||
| NEURAL NETWORKS | 182 | ||
| BRAIN CONNECTIVITY | 183 | ||
| SPATIAL ORGANIZATION | 183 | ||
| LAMINAR ORGANIZATION | 184 | ||
| PATTERNS OF SYNAPTIC CONNECTION | 184 | ||
| DENDRITES AND NEURONS | 185 | ||
| Basic Circuits | 186 | ||
| BRAIN WAVES | 186 | ||
| Learning | 186 | ||
| What Parts of the Brain Participate Most Actively in Learning? | 187 | ||
| The Power of Connection | 189 | ||
| LANGUAGE | 189 | ||
| Neurologic Substrates of Language Processing and Production | 190 | ||
| PERISYLVIAN ZONE | 190 | ||
| BROCA’S AND WERNICKE’S AREAS | 191 | ||
| ARCUATE FASCICULUS | 192 | ||
| ANGULAR GYRUS | 192 | ||
| SUPRAMARGINAL GYRUS | 192 | ||
| NEW UNDERSTANDING OF THE STRUCTURES INVOLVED WITH LANGUAGE | 192 | ||
| Dorsal Pathways | 193 | ||
| Ventral Pathways | 193 | ||
| SUBCORTICAL LANGUAGE MECHANISMS | 194 | ||
| THALAMIC LESIONS | 194 | ||
| NONTHALAMIC SUBCORTICAL LESIONS | 195 | ||
| RIGHT HEMISPHERE | 195 | ||
| ROLE OF COGNITION IN COMMUNICATION | 196 | ||
| Attention and Information Processing | 197 | ||
| Memory | 197 | ||
| Reasoning and Problem Solving | 198 | ||
| Metacognition and Executive Functions | 198 | ||
| Changing the Brain | 199 | ||
| NEUROPLASTICITY AND NEUROGENESIS | 200 | ||
| Neuroplasticity | 200 | ||
| Neurogenesis | 200 | ||
| RECOVERY IN THE DAMAGED BRAIN | 201 | ||
| 10 - Adult Disorders of Language | 206 | ||
| Aphasia | 207 | ||
| ETIOLOGY AND NEUROPATHOLOGY OF APHASIA | 207 | ||
| Cerebrovascular Accident | 208 | ||
| Occlusive Mechanisms | 208 | ||
| Hemorrhage | 209 | ||
| Neoplasms in the Brain | 209 | ||
| APHASIA CLASSIFICATION | 210 | ||
| Dichotomous Classification | 210 | ||
| Classifications under the Boston System | 210 | ||
| TESTING AND INTERVENTION FOR APHASIA | 215 | ||
| ROLE OF THE SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGIST | 215 | ||
| PHARMACOLOGY IN APHASIA | 216 | ||
| PRIMARY PROGRESSIVE APHASIA | 216 | ||
| Associated Central Disturbances | 218 | ||
| ALEXIA | 219 | ||
| Alexia without Agraphia | 219 | ||
| Alexia with Agraphia | 219 | ||
| Aphasic Alexia | 220 | ||
| PSYCHOLINGUISTIC CLASSIFICATIONS | 220 | ||
| AGRAPHIA | 220 | ||
| Cognitive-Communicative Disorders | 220 | ||
| COMMUNICATION DISORDERS RELATED TO RIGHT HEMISPHERE DAMAGE | 221 | ||
| Neglect, Inattention, and Denial | 221 | ||
| Prosopagnosia | 222 | ||
| Visual-Perceptual Deficits | 222 | ||
| Spatial Organizational Deficits | 222 | ||
| Prosodic Deficits | 222 | ||
| DEMENTIA | 223 | ||
| Classification of Dementias | 223 | ||
| Cortical Dementias | 223 | ||
| Subcortical and Mixed Dementias | 224 | ||
| Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist in Dementia | 224 | ||
| ACUTE CONFUSIONAL STATES | 224 | ||
| TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY | 225 | ||
| Neuropathology of Injury | 225 | ||
| Neurobehavioral Effects | 226 | ||
| Assessment and Treatment | 226 | ||
| MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY | 226 | ||
| CHRONIC TRAUMATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY | 228 | ||
| THE ROLE OF THE SLP | 229 | ||
| 11 - Pediatrics: The Developing Brain | 234 | ||
| Introduction | 235 | ||
| Development of the Nervous System | 235 | ||
| EARLY DEVELOPMENT | 235 | ||
| Embryology of the Peripheral Nervous System | 238 | ||
| Spinal Cord | 238 | ||
| Development of the Meninges | 240 | ||
| Development of the Ventricles | 240 | ||
| Embryology of Cortical and Subcortical Structures | 240 | ||
| Neuronal Migration in the Cerebral Cortex | 242 | ||
| MAKING CONNECTIONS | 244 | ||
| CRITICAL PERIODS | 244 | ||
| Primitive Reflexes of the Newborn | 244 | ||
| Diagnosis of Neurologic Disorder with Primitive Reflex | 244 | ||
| ASYMMETRICAL TONIC NECK REFLEX | 247 | ||
| SYMMETRICAL TONIC NECK REFLEX | 247 | ||
| POSITIVE SUPPORT REFLEX | 247 | ||
| TONIC LABYRINTHINE REFLEX | 248 | ||
| SEGMENTAL ROLLING REFLEX | 248 | ||
| GALANT REFLEX | 249 | ||
| MORO REFLEX | 249 | ||
| Oral and Pharyngeal Reflexes | 251 | ||
| ROOTING REFLEX | 252 | ||
| SUCKLING REFLEX | 253 | ||
| SWALLOWING REFLEX | 253 | ||
| TONGUE REFLEX | 254 | ||
| BITE REFLEX | 254 | ||
| GAG REFLEX | 254 | ||
| 12 - Pediatric Clinical Speech Syndromes | 256 | ||
| Relation of Reflexes, Brain Development, and Speech Development | 257 | ||
| ASSESSING MASTICATION AND DEGLUTITION | 257 | ||
| Modified Feeding | 257 | ||
| Cranial Nerve VII | 257 | ||
| Cranial Nerve XII | 258 | ||
| Cranial Nerve V | 258 | ||
| Integration of Cranial Nerves V, VII, IX, X, and XII | 258 | ||
| Developmental Motor Speech Disorders | 259 | ||
| CEREBRAL PALSY | 260 | ||
| Spastic Cerebral Palsy | 261 | ||
| Spastic Hemiplegia | 261 | ||
| Spastic Paraplegia and Diplegia | 261 | ||
| Spastic Quadriplegia | 261 | ||
| Athetoid Cerebral Palsy | 262 | ||
| Ataxic Cerebral Palsy | 263 | ||
| CHILDHOOD SUPRABULBAR PARESIS | 263 | ||
| MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY | 263 | ||
| Childhood Apraxia of Speech | 264 | ||
| PATHOPHYSIOLOGY | 264 | ||
| ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT | 265 | ||
| Other Disorders of Speech Production | 266 | ||
| DISORDERS OF FLUENCY | 267 | ||
| Findings from Neuroimaging Studies | 267 | ||
| 13 - Pediatric Disorders of Language | 272 | ||
| Brain Growth | 273 | ||
| BRAIN WEIGHT | 273 | ||
| DIFFERENTIAL BRAIN GROWTH | 273 | ||
| DIFFERENTIAL BRAIN GROWTH ANOMALY: AGENESIS OF THE CORPUS CALLOSUM | 274 | ||
| MYELINATION FOR LANGUAGE | 274 | ||
| Cerebral Plasticity | 275 | ||
| DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE DOMINANCE | 276 | ||
| Bilingualism | 278 | ||
| LANGUAGE DIFFERENCE OR LANGUAGE DISORDER? | 279 | ||
| Childhood Language Disorders | 279 | ||
| LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT | 279 | ||
| NEURAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT | 280 | ||
| LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT IN CHILDREN WITH EPILEPSY | 280 | ||
| Landau-Kleffner Syndrome | 281 | ||
| LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT IN CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY | 281 | ||
| LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT IN NEGLECTED AND ABUSED CHILDREN | 283 | ||
| Autism Spectrum Disorder | 283 | ||
| Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury | 285 | ||
| PATHOPHYSIOLOGY | 285 | ||
| RESEARCH ON OUTCOME | 286 | ||
| Severe Injury Groups | 286 | ||
| Mild to Moderate Injury Groups | 287 | ||
| Injury in Children Younger Than Age 3 | 287 | ||
| What Else? | 287 | ||
| A - Medical Conditions Related to Communication Disorders | 291 | ||
| B - Bedside Neurologic Examination | 294 | ||
| C - Screening Neurologic Examination for Speech-Language Pathology | 295 | ||
| 297Glossary | 297 | ||
| Index | 313 | ||
| A | 313 | ||
| B | 313 | ||
| C | 314 | ||
| D | 315 | ||
| E | 315 | ||
| F | 315 | ||
| G | 316 | ||
| H | 316 | ||
| I | 316 | ||
| J | 316 | ||
| K | 316 | ||
| L | 316 | ||
| M | 317 | ||
| N | 317 | ||
| O | 318 | ||
| P | 318 | ||
| Q | 319 | ||
| R | 319 | ||
| S | 319 | ||
| T | 320 | ||
| U | 320 | ||
| V | 320 | ||
| W | 320 | ||
| Z | 320 |