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Anatomy and Physiology - E-Book
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | Cover | ||
| Evolve learning system | ES- | ||
| On the cover | ii | ||
| Front matter | iii | ||
| Anatomy & physiology | iii | ||
| Copyright | iv | ||
| About the authors | v | ||
| Contributor | vi | ||
| Reviewers | vi | ||
| Preface | viii | ||
| Unifying themes | viii | ||
| Aims of the revision | viii | ||
| Illustrations and design | x | ||
| Learning aids | x | ||
| Unit introductions | xi | ||
| Chapter learning aids | xi | ||
| Boxed sidebars | xii | ||
| Glossary | xiii | ||
| Learning supplements for students | xiii | ||
| Brief atlas and quick guide | xiii | ||
| Clear view of the human body | xiv | ||
| evolve.elsevier.com/patton/ap/ | xiv | ||
| Anatomy and physiology online | xiv | ||
| Survival guide for anatomy & physiology | xiv | ||
| Study guide | xiv | ||
| Anatomy & physiology laboratory manual | xiv | ||
| Teaching supplements for instructors | xv | ||
| Instructor resources on evolve | xv | ||
| Instructor’s guide for the laboratory manual | xv | ||
| Acknowledgments | xvi | ||
| Table of contents | xvii | ||
| Color key | xxx | ||
| Illustration and photograph credits | xxxii | ||
| Cover and front matter | xxxii | ||
| Unit 1 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 1 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 2 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 3 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 4 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 5 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 6 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 7 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 8 | xxxii | ||
| Chapter 9 | xxxiii | ||
| Unit 2 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 10 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 11 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 12 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 13 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 14 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 15 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 16 | xxxiii | ||
| Chapter 17 | xxxiv | ||
| Unit 3 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 18 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 19 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 20 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 21 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 22 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 23 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 24 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 25 | xxxiv | ||
| Chapter 26 | xxxiv | ||
| Unit 4 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 27 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 28 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 29 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 30 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 31 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 32 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 33 | xxxv | ||
| Chapter 34 | xxxvi | ||
| Unit 5 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 35 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 36 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 37 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 38 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 39 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 40 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 41 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 42 | xxxvi | ||
| Chapter 43 | xxxvii | ||
| Chapter 44 | xxxvii | ||
| Unit 6 | xxxvii | ||
| Chapter 45 | xxxvii | ||
| Chapter 46 | xxxvii | ||
| Chapter 47 | xxxvii | ||
| Chapter 48 | xxxvii | ||
| Unit 1 | 1 | ||
| Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1 Organization of the body | 3 | ||
| Science and society | 4 | ||
| Anatomy and physiology | 5 | ||
| Anatomy | 5 | ||
| Physiology | 5 | ||
| Language of science and medicine | 5 | ||
| Characteristics of life | 6 | ||
| Levels of organization | 7 | ||
| Chemical level—basis for life | 7 | ||
| Organelle level | 7 | ||
| Cellular level | 8 | ||
| Tissue level | 8 | ||
| Organ level | 8 | ||
| System level | 8 | ||
| Organism level | 9 | ||
| Anatomical position | 9 | ||
| Body cavities | 10 | ||
| Ventral body cavities | 10 | ||
| Dorsal body cavities | 11 | ||
| Other cavities | 12 | ||
| Body regions | 12 | ||
| Abdominopelvic regions | 13 | ||
| Abdominal quadrants | 14 | ||
| Terms used in describing body structure | 14 | ||
| Directional terms | 14 | ||
| Superior and inferior | 14 | ||
| Anterior and posterior | 14 | ||
| Medial and lateral | 14 | ||
| Proximal and distal | 15 | ||
| Superficial and deep | 15 | ||
| Terms related to organs | 15 | ||
| Lumen | 15 | ||
| Central and peripheral | 15 | ||
| Medullary and cortical | 15 | ||
| Basal and apical | 15 | ||
| Anatomical rosette | 15 | ||
| Body planes and sections | 16 | ||
| Sagittal planes | 16 | ||
| Coronal planes | 16 | ||
| Transverse planes | 16 | ||
| Other planes and sections | 17 | ||
| Interaction of structure and function | 17 | ||
| Chapter summary | 19 | ||
| Science and society | 19 | ||
| Anatomy and physiology | 20 | ||
| Language of science and medicine | 20 | ||
| Characteristics of life | 20 | ||
| Levels of organization | 20 | ||
| Anatomical position | 20 | ||
| Body cavities | 21 | ||
| Body regions | 21 | ||
| Terms used in describing body structure | 21 | ||
| Body planes and sections | 21 | ||
| Interaction of structure and function | 21 | ||
| Cycle of life: Life span considerations | 21 | ||
| 2 Homeostasis | 23 | ||
| Homeostasis | 24 | ||
| The internal environment | 24 | ||
| Relative stability | 24 | ||
| Set point | 24 | ||
| Models of homeostasis | 25 | ||
| Homeostatic control mechanisms | 26 | ||
| Feedback loops | 26 | ||
| Basic components of control systems | 26 | ||
| Sensor | 26 | ||
| Integrator | 26 | ||
| Effector | 26 | ||
| Feedback | 26 | ||
| Negative feedback in control systems | 27 | ||
| Positive feedback in control systems | 28 | ||
| Changing the set point | 29 | ||
| Feed-forward in control systems | 30 | ||
| Levels of homeostatic control | 30 | ||
| Summary of homeostasis | 31 | ||
| Chapter summary | 35 | ||
| Homeostasis | 35 | ||
| Homeostatic control mechanisms | 36 | ||
| Levels of control | 36 | ||
| Summary of homeostasis | 36 | ||
| Cycle of life: Life span considerations | 36 | ||
| 3 Chemical basis of life | 38 | ||
| Units of matter | 39 | ||
| Elements and compounds | 39 | ||
| Atoms | 40 | ||
| Atomic structure | 41 | ||
| Cloud model | 41 | ||
| Atomic number and mass number | 41 | ||
| Energy levels | 41 | ||
| Isotopes | 42 | ||
| Attractions between atoms | 43 | ||
| Chemical bonds | 43 | ||
| Ionic bonds | 43 | ||
| Covalent bonds | 43 | ||
| Attractions between molecules | 44 | ||
| Hydrogen bonds | 44 | ||
| Other weak attractions | 45 | ||
| Chemical reactions | 45 | ||
| Metabolism | 38 | ||
| Body chemistry | 46 | ||
| Catabolism | 46 | ||
| Anabolism | 47 | ||
| Organic and inorganic compounds | 47 | ||
| Inorganic molecules | 47 | ||
| Water | 47 | ||
| Properties of water | 47 | ||
| Oxygen and carbon dioxide | 48 | ||
| Electrolytes | 48 | ||
| Acids and bases | 48 | ||
| Acids | 48 | ||
| Bases | 48 | ||
| The pH scale | 49 | ||
| Buffers | 50 | ||
| Salts | 50 | ||
| Chapter summary | 52 | ||
| Units of matter | 52 | ||
| Atomic structure | 52 | ||
| Attractions between atoms | 53 | ||
| Attractions between molecules | 53 | ||
| Chemical reactions | 53 | ||
| Metabolism | 53 | ||
| Organic and inorganic compounds | 53 | ||
| Inorganic molecules | 53 | ||
| 4 Biomolecules | 55 | ||
| Organic molecules | 56 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 56 | ||
| Monosaccharides | 57 | ||
| Disaccharides and polysaccharides | 57 | ||
| Lipids | 58 | ||
| Triglycerides or fats | 58 | ||
| Types of fatty acids | 58 | ||
| Formation of triglycerides | 59 | ||
| Phospholipids | 59 | ||
| Steroids | 60 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 60 | ||
| Proteins | 61 | ||
| Amino acids | 63 | ||
| Levels of protein structure | 64 | ||
| Primary protein structure | 64 | ||
| Secondary protein structure | 64 | ||
| Tertiary protein structure | 64 | ||
| Quaternary protein structure | 65 | ||
| Importance of protein shape | 65 | ||
| Nucleic acids and related molecules | 67 | ||
| DNA and RNA | 67 | ||
| Nucleotides and related molecules | 68 | ||
| Combined forms | 69 | ||
| Chapter summary | 72 | ||
| Organic molecules | 72 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 73 | ||
| Lipids | 73 | ||
| Proteins | 73 | ||
| Nucleic acids and related molecules | 73 | ||
| Combined forms | 74 | ||
| 5 Cell structure | 75 | ||
| Functional anatomy of cells | 76 | ||
| The typical cell | 76 | ||
| Cell structures | 77 | ||
| Cell membranes | 79 | ||
| Membrane structure | 79 | ||
| Membrane function | 80 | ||
| Transport | 81 | ||
| Identification | 81 | ||
| Signaling | 81 | ||
| Connection | 81 | ||
| Cytoplasm and organelles | 82 | ||
| Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | 82 | ||
| Rough ER (RER) | 82 | ||
| Smooth ER (SER) | 82 | ||
| Ribosomes | 83 | ||
| Golgi apparatus | 83 | ||
| Lysosomes | 85 | ||
| Proteasomes | 85 | ||
| Peroxisomes | 85 | ||
| Mitochondria | 86 | ||
| Nucleus | 86 | ||
| Cytoskeleton | 88 | ||
| Cell fibers | 88 | ||
| Centrosome | 88 | ||
| Molecular motors | 89 | ||
| Cell extensions | 90 | ||
| Microvilli | 90 | ||
| Cilia | 90 | ||
| Flagella | 91 | ||
| Cell connections | 92 | ||
| Desmosomes | 92 | ||
| Gap junctions | 92 | ||
| Tight junctions | 92 | ||
| Chapter summary | 95 | ||
| Functional anatomy of cells | 95 | ||
| Cell membranes | 95 | ||
| Cytoplasm and organelles | 95 | ||
| Nucleus | 96 | ||
| Cytoskeleton | 96 | ||
| Cell connections | 96 | ||
| 6 Cell function | 98 | ||
| Movement of substances through cell membranes | 99 | ||
| Passive transport processes | 99 | ||
| Diffusion | 99 | ||
| Simple diffusion | 100 | ||
| Osmosis | 101 | ||
| Facilitated diffusion | 103 | ||
| Channel-mediated passive transport | 103 | ||
| Carrier-mediated passive transport | 103 | ||
| Role of passive transfer processes | 104 | ||
| Active transport processes | 104 | ||
| Transport by pumps | 104 | ||
| Transport by vesicles | 106 | ||
| Endocytosis | 106 | ||
| Exocytosis | 108 | ||
| Role of active transport processes | 108 | ||
| Cell metabolism | 109 | ||
| Metabolism | 109 | ||
| Role of enzymes | 109 | ||
| Chemical structure of enzymes | 109 | ||
| Classification and naming of enzymes | 109 | ||
| General function of enzymes | 110 | ||
| Catabolism | 111 | ||
| Overview of cellular respiration | 112 | ||
| Glycolysis | 112 | ||
| Citric acid cycle | 113 | ||
| Electron transport system | 113 | ||
| Anabolism | 114 | ||
| Chapter summary | 117 | ||
| Movement of substances through cell membranes | 117 | ||
| Cell metabolism | 118 | ||
| The big picture: Cell physiology and the whole body | 119 | ||
| 7 Cell growth and development | 120 | ||
| Protein synthesis | 121 | ||
| Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | 121 | ||
| Ribonucleic acid (RNA) | 122 | ||
| Transcription | 122 | ||
| Editing the transcript | 123 | ||
| Translation | 123 | ||
| Post-translation processing | 126 | ||
| Cell growth | 126 | ||
| Production of cytoplasm | 126 | ||
| DNA replication | 127 | ||
| Cell reproduction | 128 | ||
| Mitosis | 129 | ||
| Prophase | 129 | ||
| Metaphase | 130 | ||
| Anaphase | 130 | ||
| Telophase | 130 | ||
| Meiosis | 131 | ||
| Regulating the cell life cycle | 131 | ||
| Chapter summary | 134 | ||
| Growth and reproduction of cells | 134 | ||
| Protein synthesis | 134 | ||
| Cell growth | 135 | ||
| Cell reproduction | 135 | ||
| Regulating the cell life cycle | 135 | ||
| Cycle of life: Cells | 136 | ||
| The big picture: Cell physiology and the whole body | 136 | ||
| 8 Introduction to tissues | 137 | ||
| Introduction to tissues | 138 | ||
| Principal types of tissue | 138 | ||
| Development of tissues | 139 | ||
| Extracellular matrix | 139 | ||
| Fluid environment of the body | 139 | ||
| Components of the ECM | 140 | ||
| Collagen | 140 | ||
| Elastin | 141 | ||
| Glycoproteins and proteoglycans | 144 | ||
| Holding tissues together | 144 | ||
| Tissue repair | 144 | ||
| Body membranes | 145 | ||
| Epithelial membranes | 145 | ||
| Cutaneous membrane | 145 | ||
| Serous membranes | 146 | ||
| Mucous membranes | 146 | ||
| Connective tissue membranes | 147 | ||
| Chapter summary | 152 | ||
| Introduction to tissues | 152 | ||
| Extracellular matrix (ECM) | 152 | ||
| Tissue repair | 153 | ||
| Body membranes | 153 | ||
| The big picture: Tissues, membranes, and the whole body | 153 | ||
| 9 Tissue types | 155 | ||
| Epithelial tissue | 156 | ||
| Types and locations of epithelial tissue | 156 | ||
| Functions of epithelial tissue | 156 | ||
| Generalizations about epithelial tissue | 156 | ||
| Classification of epithelial tissue | 156 | ||
| Membranous epithelium | 156 | ||
| Classification based on cell shape | 156 | ||
| Classification based on layers of cells | 156 | ||
| Simple epithelium. | 157 | ||
| Stratified epithelium. | 159 | ||
| Glandular epithelium | 161 | ||
| Structural classification of exocrine glands | 161 | ||
| Functional classification of exocrine glands | 161 | ||
| Connective tissue | 162 | ||
| Functions of connective tissue | 162 | ||
| Characteristics of connective tissue | 162 | ||
| Classification of connective tissue | 163 | ||
| Fibrous connective tissue | 163 | ||
| Loose fibrous connective tissue (areolar) | 163 | ||
| Adipose tissue | 165 | ||
| Reticular tissue | 165 | ||
| Dense fibrous tissue | 166 | ||
| Dense irregular fibrous tissue | 166 | ||
| Dense regular fibrous tissue | 166 | ||
| Bone tissue | 167 | ||
| Compact bone tissue | 168 | ||
| Cancellous (spongy) bone tissue | 168 | ||
| Cartilage tissue | 169 | ||
| Hyaline cartilage tissue | 169 | ||
| Fibrocartilage tissue | 169 | ||
| Elastic cartilage tissue | 169 | ||
| Blood tissue | 169 | ||
| Muscle tissue | 170 | ||
| Nervous tissue | 172 | ||
| Chapter summary | 175 | ||
| Epithelial tissue | 175 | ||
| Connective tissue | 176 | ||
| Muscle tissue | 177 | ||
| Nervous tissue | 177 | ||
| The big picture: Tissue types and the whole body | 177 | ||
| Unit 2 | 179 | ||
| Introduction | 179 | ||
| 10 Skin | 180 | ||
| Structure of the skin | 181 | ||
| Thin and thick skin | 181 | ||
| Epidermis | 181 | ||
| Cell types | 181 | ||
| Cell layers | 183 | ||
| Epidermal growth and repair | 184 | ||
| Dermoepidermal junction | 185 | ||
| Dermis | 186 | ||
| Papillary layer | 186 | ||
| Reticular layer | 186 | ||
| Dermal growth and repair | 186 | ||
| Hypodermis | 187 | ||
| Skin color | 188 | ||
| Melanin | 188 | ||
| Other pigments | 189 | ||
| Functions of the skin | 190 | ||
| Protection | 191 | ||
| Surface film | 191 | ||
| Sensation | 192 | ||
| Flexibility | 192 | ||
| Excretion | 192 | ||
| Hormone (vitamin D) production | 192 | ||
| Immunity | 192 | ||
| Homeostasis of body temperature | 192 | ||
| Heat production | 193 | ||
| Heat loss | 193 | ||
| Evaporation | 193 | ||
| Radiation | 193 | ||
| Conduction | 193 | ||
| Convection | 194 | ||
| Homeostatic regulation of heat loss | 194 | ||
| Appendages of the skin | 194 | ||
| Hair | 195 | ||
| Development of hair | 195 | ||
| Appearance of hair | 195 | ||
| Nails | 196 | ||
| Skin glands | 197 | ||
| Sweat glands | 197 | ||
| Sebaceous glands | 198 | ||
| Ceruminous glands | 199 | ||
| Chapter summary | 205 | ||
| Introduction | 205 | ||
| Structure of the skin | 205 | ||
| Skin color | 206 | ||
| Functions of the skin | 206 | ||
| Appendages of the skin | 207 | ||
| Cycle of life: Skin | 207 | ||
| The big picture: Skin and the whole body | 207 | ||
| 11 Skeletal tissues | 209 | ||
| tFunctions of bone | 210 | ||
| Types of bones | 210 | ||
| Parts of a long bone | 211 | ||
| Parts of flat bones and other bones | 212 | ||
| Bone tissue | 213 | ||
| Composition of bone matrix | 213 | ||
| Inorganic salts | 213 | ||
| Organic matrix | 213 | ||
| Microscopic structure of bone | 214 | ||
| Compact bone | 214 | ||
| Cancellous bone | 214 | ||
| Types of bone cells | 216 | ||
| Bone marrow | 217 | ||
| Regulation of blood calcium levels | 218 | ||
| Mechanisms of calcium homeostasis | 218 | ||
| Parathyroid hormone | 218 | ||
| Calcitonin | 218 | ||
| Other mechanisms | 218 | ||
| Development of bone | 218 | ||
| Intramembranous ossification | 219 | ||
| Endochondral ossification | 220 | ||
| Bone remodeling | 222 | ||
| Repair of bone fractures | 224 | ||
| Cartilage | 225 | ||
| Types of cartilage | 225 | ||
| Hyaline cartilage | 225 | ||
| Elastic cartilage | 225 | ||
| Fibrocartilage | 226 | ||
| Function of cartilage | 226 | ||
| Growth of cartilage | 226 | ||
| Chapter summary | 229 | ||
| Functions of bone | 229 | ||
| Types of bones | 229 | ||
| Bone tissue | 230 | ||
| Microscopic structure of bone | 230 | ||
| Bone marrow | 230 | ||
| Regulation of blood calcium levels | 231 | ||
| Development of bone | 231 | ||
| Bone remodeling | 231 | ||
| Repair of bone fractures | 231 | ||
| Cartilage | 232 | ||
| Cycle of life: Skeletal tissues | 232 | ||
| 12 Axial skeleton | 233 | ||
| Divisions of the skeleton | 234 | ||
| Skull | 236 | ||
| Cranial bones | 248 | ||
| Facial bones | 250 | ||
| Eye orbits | 250 | ||
| Fetal skull | 252 | ||
| Hyoid bone | 253 | ||
| Vertebral column | 255 | ||
| Thorax | 258 | ||
| Sternum | 258 | ||
| Ribs | 258 | ||
| Chapter summary | 262 | ||
| Introduction | 262 | ||
| Divisions of the skeleton | 262 | ||
| Axial skeleton | 262 | ||
| 13 Appendicular skeleton | 264 | ||
| Upper extremity | 265 | ||
| Shoulder girdle | 265 | ||
| Arm | 266 | ||
| Forearm | 266 | ||
| Hand | 269 | ||
| tLower extremity | 270 | ||
| Pelvic girdle | 270 | ||
| Thigh | 272 | ||
| Leg | 274 | ||
| Foot | 275 | ||
| tSkeletal differences between men and women | 276 | ||
| Chapter summary | 280 | ||
| Upper extremity | 280 | ||
| Lower extremity | 281 | ||
| Skeletal differences between men and women | 281 | ||
| Cycle of life: Skeletal system | 281 | ||
| The big picture: Skeletal system | 281 | ||
| 14 Articulations | 283 | ||
| Classification of joints | 284 | ||
| Fibrous joints (synarthroses) | 284 | ||
| Syndesmoses | 284 | ||
| Sutures | 284 | ||
| Gomphoses | 284 | ||
| Cartilaginous joints (amphiarthroses) | 284 | ||
| Synchondroses | 285 | ||
| Symphyses | 286 | ||
| Synovial joints (diarthroses) | 286 | ||
| Structure of synovial joints | 286 | ||
| Types of synovial joints | 287 | ||
| Representative synovial joints | 289 | ||
| Humeroscapular joint | 289 | ||
| Elbow joint | 290 | ||
| Forearm, wrist, hand, and finger joints | 291 | ||
| Radioulnar joints | 291 | ||
| Radiocarpal (wrist) joints | 291 | ||
| Intercarpal joints | 292 | ||
| Carpometacarpal joints | 292 | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal joints | 292 | ||
| Interphalangeal joints | 292 | ||
| Hip joint | 293 | ||
| Knee joint | 293 | ||
| Ankle joint | 295 | ||
| Vertebral joints | 297 | ||
| Movement at synovial joints | 298 | ||
| Range of motion | 298 | ||
| Angular movements | 299 | ||
| Flexion | 299 | ||
| Extension and hyperextension | 299 | ||
| Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion | 299 | ||
| Abduction and adduction | 299 | ||
| Circular movements | 299 | ||
| Rotation and circumduction | 299 | ||
| Supination and pronation | 299 | ||
| Gliding movements | 299 | ||
| Special movements | 299 | ||
| Inversion and eversion | 299 | ||
| Protraction and retraction | 299 | ||
| Elevation and depression | 299 | ||
| Examples of joint movements | 299 | ||
| Chapter summary | 310 | ||
| Introduction | 310 | ||
| Classification of joints | 310 | ||
| Representative synovial joints | 310 | ||
| Movement at synovial joints | 311 | ||
| Cycle of life: Articulations | 312 | ||
| The big picture: Articulations | 312 | ||
| 15 Axial muscles | 313 | ||
| Skeletal muscle structure | 314 | ||
| Connective tissue components | 314 | ||
| Size, shape, and fiber arrangement | 316 | ||
| Attachment of muscles | 317 | ||
| Muscle actions | 318 | ||
| Lever systems | 318 | ||
| First-class levers | 319 | ||
| Second-class levers | 319 | ||
| Third-class levers | 320 | ||
| How muscles are named | 321 | ||
| Hints on how to deduce muscle actions | 323 | ||
| Axial muscles | 323 | ||
| Muscles of the head and neck | 324 | ||
| Muscles of facial expression | 324 | ||
| Muscles of mastication | 325 | ||
| Muscles that move the head | 326 | ||
| Trunk muscles | 327 | ||
| Muscles of the thorax | 327 | ||
| Muscles of the abdominal wall | 328 | ||
| Muscles of the back | 330 | ||
| Muscles of the pelvic floor | 332 | ||
| Chapter summary | 335 | ||
| Introduction | 335 | ||
| Skeletal muscle structure | 335 | ||
| How muscles are named | 335 | ||
| Axial muscles | 335 | ||
| Muscles of the head and neck | 335 | ||
| Trunk muscles | 336 | ||
| 16 Appendicular muscles | 337 | ||
| Appendicular muscles | 338 | ||
| Upper extremity muscles | 338 | ||
| Muscles acting on the shoulder girdle | 338 | ||
| Muscles that move the arm | 341 | ||
| Muscles that move the forearm | 342 | ||
| Muscles that move the wrist, hand, and fingers | 345 | ||
| Lower extremity muscles | 349 | ||
| Muscles that move the thigh and leg | 349 | ||
| Muscles that move the ankle and foot | 356 | ||
| Posture | 357 | ||
| How posture is maintained | 357 | ||
| Chapter summary | 360 | ||
| Appendicular muscles | 360 | ||
| Upper extremity muscles | 360 | ||
| Lower extremity muscles | 360 | ||
| Posture | 360 | ||
| Cycle of life: Muscular system | 360 | ||
| 17 Muscle contraction | 361 | ||
| General functions | 362 | ||
| Function of skeletal muscle tissue | 362 | ||
| Functional characteristics of muscle | 362 | ||
| Overview of the muscle cell | 362 | ||
| Myofilaments | 364 | ||
| Mechanism of contraction | 366 | ||
| Excitation of the sarcolemma | 366 | ||
| Contraction | 368 | ||
| Relaxation | 370 | ||
| Energy sources for muscle contraction | 370 | ||
| ATP | 370 | ||
| Glucose and oxygen | 370 | ||
| Catabolic pathways | 371 | ||
| Heat production | 373 | ||
| Function of skeletal muscle organs | 373 | ||
| Motor unit | 374 | ||
| Myography | 374 | ||
| The twitch contraction | 375 | ||
| Treppe: The staircase phenomenon | 375 | ||
| Tetanus | 375 | ||
| Muscle tone | 377 | ||
| Graded strength principle | 377 | ||
| Grades of muscle strength | 377 | ||
| Metabolic condition | 377 | ||
| Recruitment of motor units | 377 | ||
| Effect of muscle length on strength | 378 | ||
| Effect of load on strength | 379 | ||
| Mobilizing and stabilizing contractions | 379 | ||
| Isotonic contractions | 379 | ||
| Isometric contractions | 380 | ||
| Function of cardiac and smooth muscle tissue | 381 | ||
| Cardiac muscle | 381 | ||
| Smooth muscle | 382 | ||
| Chapter summary | 387 | ||
| Introduction | 387 | ||
| General functions | 387 | ||
| Function of skeletal muscle tissue | 387 | ||
| Function of skeletal muscle organs | 389 | ||
| Graded strength principle | 389 | ||
| Function of cardiac and smooth muscle tissue | 389 | ||
| The big picture: Muscle tissue and the whole body | 390 | ||
| Unit 3 | 391 | ||
| Introduction | 391 | ||
| 18 Nervous system cells | 392 | ||
| Organization of the nervous system | 393 | ||
| Central and peripheral nervous systems | 393 | ||
| Central nervous system (CNS) | 393 | ||
| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) | 394 | ||
| Afferent and efferent divisions | 394 | ||
| Somatic and autonomic nervous systems | 394 | ||
| Somatic nervous system (SNS) | 394 | ||
| Autonomic nervous system (ANS) | 395 | ||
| Enteric nervous system (ENS) | 395 | ||
| Glia | 395 | ||
| Overview of glia | 395 | ||
| Central glia | 395 | ||
| Astrocytes | 395 | ||
| Microglia | 396 | ||
| Ependymal cells | 396 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes | 397 | ||
| Peripheral glia | 397 | ||
| Neurons | 399 | ||
| Structure and function of neurons | 399 | ||
| Classification of neurons | 400 | ||
| Structural classification | 400 | ||
| Functional classification | 401 | ||
| Reflex arc | 402 | ||
| Nerves and tracts | 403 | ||
| Nerves | 403 | ||
| Tracts | 404 | ||
| White and gray matter | 404 | ||
| Repair of nerve fibers | 404 | ||
| Chapter summary | 409 | ||
| Introduction | 409 | ||
| Organization of the nervous system | 409 | ||
| Cells of the nervous system | 409 | ||
| Nerves and tracts | 410 | ||
| Repair of nerve fibers | 410 | ||
| Cycle of life: Nervous system cells | 411 | ||
| The big picture: Nervous system cells and the whole body | 411 | ||
| 19 Nerve signaling | 412 | ||
| tElectrical nature of neurons | 413 | ||
| Membrane potentials | 413 | ||
| Resting membrane potentials | 413 | ||
| Local potentials | 414 | ||
| tAction potentials | 415 | ||
| Mechanism of the action potential | 415 | ||
| Refractory period | 417 | ||
| Conduction of the action potential | 418 | ||
| tSynaptic transmission | 418 | ||
| Structure of the synapse | 418 | ||
| Types of synapses | 418 | ||
| Electrical synapse | 418 | ||
| Chemical synapse | 419 | ||
| Mechanisms of synaptic transmission | 420 | ||
| Summation | 422 | ||
| Synapses and memory | 423 | ||
| tNeurotransmitters | 424 | ||
| Functional classification of neurotransmitters | 424 | ||
| Structural classification of neurotransmitters | 425 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 425 | ||
| Amines | 425 | ||
| Amino acids | 428 | ||
| Other small-molecule transmitters | 428 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 429 | ||
| tNeural networks | 429 | ||
| The network model | 429 | ||
| Development of neural networks | 429 | ||
| Complexity in neural networks | 430 | ||
| Chapter summary | 433 | ||
| Electrical nature of neurons | 433 | ||
| Action potentials | 433 | ||
| Synaptic transmission | 433 | ||
| Neurotransmitters | 434 | ||
| Neural networks | 435 | ||
| The big picture: Nerve signaling and the whole body | 435 | ||
| 20 Central nervous system | 436 | ||
| Coverings of the brain and spinal cord | 437 | ||
| Cerebrospinal fluid | 439 | ||
| Fluid spaces | 439 | ||
| Formation and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid | 439 | ||
| Spinal cord | 442 | ||
| Structure of the spinal cord | 442 | ||
| Functions of the spinal cord | 443 | ||
| Brain | 445 | ||
| Regions of the brain | 445 | ||
| Brain development | 445 | ||
| Structure of the brainstem | 446 | ||
| Medulla oblongata | 446 | ||
| Pons | 447 | ||
| Midbrain | 447 | ||
| Functions of the brainstem | 447 | ||
| Structure of the cerebellum | 449 | ||
| Functions of the cerebellum | 450 | ||
| Diencephalon | 452 | ||
| Thalamus | 452 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 453 | ||
| Pineal gland | 453 | ||
| Structure of the cerebrum | 454 | ||
| Cerebral cortex | 454 | ||
| Cerebral tracts and basal nuclei | 455 | ||
| Functions of the cerebral cortex | 457 | ||
| Functional areas of the cortex | 457 | ||
| Sensory functions of the cortex | 459 | ||
| Motor functions of the cortex | 460 | ||
| Integrative functions of the cortex | 460 | ||
| Consciousness | 460 | ||
| Language | 461 | ||
| Emotions | 461 | ||
| Memory | 461 | ||
| Somatic sensory pathways in the central nervous system | 464 | ||
| Somatic motor pathways in the central nervous system | 466 | ||
| Pyramidal tracts | 467 | ||
| Extrapyramidal tracts | 467 | ||
| Chapter summary | 472 | ||
| Coverings of the brain and spinal cord | 472 | ||
| Cerebrospinal fluid | 473 | ||
| Spinal cord | 473 | ||
| Brain | 474 | ||
| Somatic sensory pathways in the central nervous system | 477 | ||
| Somatic motor pathways in the central nervous system | 477 | ||
| Cycle of life: Central nervous system | 477 | ||
| The big picture: The central nervous system and the whole body | 478 | ||
| 21 Peripheral nervous system | 479 | ||
| Spinal nerves | 480 | ||
| Structure of spinal nerves | 481 | ||
| Nerve plexuses | 482 | ||
| Cervical plexus | 483 | ||
| Brachial plexus | 485 | ||
| Lumbar plexus | 486 | ||
| Sacral plexus and coccygeal plexus | 486 | ||
| Dermatomes and myotomes | 487 | ||
| Cranial nerves | 489 | ||
| Olfactory nerve (CN I) | 490 | ||
| Optic nerve (CN II) | 490 | ||
| Oculomotor nerve (CN III) | 491 | ||
| Trochlear nerve (CN IV) | 491 | ||
| Trigeminal nerve (CN V) | 491 | ||
| Abducens nerve (CN VI) | 491 | ||
| Facial nerve (CN VII) | 492 | ||
| Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) | 492 | ||
| Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) | 492 | ||
| Vagus nerve (CN X) | 494 | ||
| Accessory nerve (CN XI) | 494 | ||
| Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) | 494 | ||
| Somatic motor nervous system | 495 | ||
| Divisions of the peripheral nervous system | 495 | ||
| Basic principles of somatic motor pathways | 495 | ||
| Somatic reflexes | 495 | ||
| Nature of a reflex | 495 | ||
| Withdrawal reflexes | 495 | ||
| Somatic reflexes of clinical importance | 496 | ||
| Knee jerk reflex. | 496 | ||
| Ankle jerk reflex. | 497 | ||
| Plantar reflex. | 497 | ||
| Corneal reflex. | 497 | ||
| Abdominal reflex. | 497 | ||
| Chapter summary | 499 | ||
| Overview | 499 | ||
| Spinal nerves | 499 | ||
| Cranial nerves | 500 | ||
| Somatic motor nervous system | 501 | ||
| The big picture: The peripheral nervous system and the whole body | 502 | ||
| 22 Autonomic nervous system | 503 | ||
| Overview of the autonomic nervous system | 504 | ||
| Role of the autonomic nervous system | 504 | ||
| Divisions of the autonomic nervous system | 504 | ||
| Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions | 504 | ||
| Enteric nervous system | 505 | ||
| Structure of the autonomic nervous system | 505 | ||
| Basic plan of autonomic pathways | 505 | ||
| Structure of the sympathetic pathways | 505 | ||
| Sympathetic preganglionic neurons | 505 | ||
| Sympathetic postganglionic neurons | 507 | ||
| Structure of the parasympathetic pathways | 507 | ||
| Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons | 507 | ||
| Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons | 507 | ||
| Autonomic neurotransmitters and receptors | 509 | ||
| Norepinephrine and its receptors | 509 | ||
| Acetylcholine and its receptors | 510 | ||
| Nonadrenergic-noncholinergic transmission | 511 | ||
| Synaptic complexity | 511 | ||
| Pharmacology | 511 | ||
| Functions of the autonomic nervous system | 512 | ||
| Overview of autonomic function | 512 | ||
| Functions of the sympathetic division | 512 | ||
| Functions of the parasympathetic division | 516 | ||
| Chapter summary | 517 | ||
| Overview of the autonomic nervous system | 517 | ||
| Structure of the autonomic nervous system | 517 | ||
| Autonomic neurotransmitters and receptors | 518 | ||
| Functions of the autonomic nervous system | 518 | ||
| The big picture: Autonomic nervous system and the whole body | 519 | ||
| 23 General senses | 520 | ||
| Sensory receptors | 521 | ||
| Receptor response | 521 | ||
| Distribution of receptors | 521 | ||
| Classification of receptors | 522 | ||
| Classification by location | 522 | ||
| Classification by stimulus detected | 522 | ||
| Classification by structure | 522 | ||
| Sense of pain | 523 | ||
| Sense of temperature | 525 | ||
| Sense of touch | 525 | ||
| Skin movement | 525 | ||
| Itch | 525 | ||
| Tickle | 525 | ||
| Light touch | 526 | ||
| Deep touch | 526 | ||
| Sense of proprioception | 526 | ||
| Chapter summary | 529 | ||
| Introduction | 529 | ||
| Sensory receptors | 529 | ||
| Classification of receptors | 530 | ||
| Sense of pain | 530 | ||
| Sense of temperature | 530 | ||
| Sense of touch | 530 | ||
| Sense of proprioception | 531 | ||
| The big picture: General senses | 531 | ||
| 24 Special senses | 532 | ||
| Sense of smell | 533 | ||
| Olfactory receptors | 533 | ||
| Olfactory pathway | 534 | ||
| Sense of taste | 534 | ||
| Taste buds | 534 | ||
| Neural pathway for taste | 536 | ||
| Senses of hearing and balance | 536 | ||
| Structure of the ear | 536 | ||
| External ear | 537 | ||
| Middle ear | 537 | ||
| Inner ear | 538 | ||
| The process of hearing | 538 | ||
| Cochlea and cochlear duct | 538 | ||
| Perceiving sound | 539 | ||
| Pathway of sound waves | 540 | ||
| Neural pathway of hearing | 540 | ||
| Balance | 540 | ||
| Vestibule and semicircular canals | 540 | ||
| Static equilibrium | 540 | ||
| Dynamic equilibrium | 541 | ||
| Sense of vision | 541 | ||
| Structure of the eye | 542 | ||
| External structures | 542 | ||
| Eyebrows and eyelashes | 543 | ||
| Eyelids | 543 | ||
| Lacrimal apparatus | 543 | ||
| Muscles of the eye | 544 | ||
| Layers of the eyeball | 544 | ||
| Fibrous layer | 544 | ||
| Vascular layer | 545 | ||
| Inner layer | 546 | ||
| Cavities and humors | 547 | ||
| The process of seeing | 547 | ||
| Formation of retinal image | 548 | ||
| Refraction of light rays | 548 | ||
| Accommodation for near vision | 548 | ||
| Change in lens shape. | 548 | ||
| Constriction of pupil. | 549 | ||
| Convergence of eyes. | 549 | ||
| The role of photopigments | 550 | ||
| Rods | 550 | ||
| Cones | 550 | ||
| Ganglion cells | 552 | ||
| Neural pathway of vision | 552 | ||
| Chapter summary | 557 | ||
| Introduction | 557 | ||
| Sense of smell | 557 | ||
| Sense of taste | 557 | ||
| Senses of hearing and balance | 558 | ||
| Vision | 559 | ||
| Cycle of life: Special senses | 561 | ||
| The big picture: Special senses | 561 | ||
| 25 Endocrine regulation | 562 | ||
| Organization of the endocrine system | 563 | ||
| Classification of hormones | 564 | ||
| Steroid hormones | 564 | ||
| Nonsteroid hormones | 564 | ||
| How hormones work | 567 | ||
| General principles of hormone action | 567 | ||
| Mechanism of steroid hormone action | 567 | ||
| Mechanisms of nonsteroid hormone action | 568 | ||
| The second messenger mechanism | 568 | ||
| The nuclear-receptor mechanism | 569 | ||
| Regulation of hormone secretion | 569 | ||
| Regulation of target cell sensitivity | 571 | ||
| Eicosanoids | 572 | ||
| Tissue hormones | 572 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 573 | ||
| Thromboxanes and leukotrienes | 574 | ||
| Chapter summary | 576 | ||
| Organization of the endocrine system | 576 | ||
| Classification of hormones | 576 | ||
| How hormones work | 576 | ||
| Eicosanoids | 577 | ||
| The big picture: Endocrine regulation and the whole body | 577 | ||
| 26 Endocrine glands | 579 | ||
| Pituitary gland | 580 | ||
| Structure of the pituitary gland | 580 | ||
| Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe of pituitary) | 580 | ||
| Growth hormone | 581 | ||
| Prolactin | 582 | ||
| Tropic hormones | 582 | ||
| Control of secretion in the adenohypophysis | 583 | ||
| Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of pituitary) | 585 | ||
| Antidiuretic hormone | 585 | ||
| Oxytocin | 586 | ||
| Pineal gland | 586 | ||
| Thyroid gland | 587 | ||
| Structure of the thyroid gland | 587 | ||
| Thyroid hormone | 587 | ||
| Calcitonin | 589 | ||
| Parathyroid glands | 589 | ||
| Structure of the parathyroid glands | 589 | ||
| Parathyroid hormone | 589 | ||
| Adrenal glands | 592 | ||
| Structure of the adrenal glands | 592 | ||
| Adrenal cortex | 592 | ||
| Mineralocorticoids | 593 | ||
| Glucocorticoids | 594 | ||
| Gonadocorticoids | 594 | ||
| Adrenal medulla | 595 | ||
| Pancreatic islets | 595 | ||
| Structure of the pancreatic islets | 595 | ||
| Pancreatic hormones | 596 | ||
| Gonads | 598 | ||
| Testes | 598 | ||
| Ovaries | 598 | ||
| Placenta | 598 | ||
| Thymus | 598 | ||
| Gastric and intestinal mucosa | 599 | ||
| Heart | 600 | ||
| Adipose tissue | 600 | ||
| Other endocrine glands and hormones | 600 | ||
| Chapter summary | 605 | ||
| Pituitary gland | 605 | ||
| Pineal gland | 606 | ||
| Thyroid gland | 606 | ||
| Parathyroid glands | 606 | ||
| Adrenal glands | 606 | ||
| Pancreatic islets | 607 | ||
| Gonads | 607 | ||
| Placenta | 607 | ||
| Thymus | 607 | ||
| Gastric and intestinal mucosa | 607 | ||
| Heart | 608 | ||
| Adipose tissue | 608 | ||
| Other endocrine glands and organs | 608 | ||
| Cycle of life: Endocrine system | 608 | ||
| The big picture: The endocrine system and the whole body | 608 | ||
| Unit 4 | 609 | ||
| Introduction | 609 | ||
| 27 Blood | 610 | ||
| Composition of blood | 611 | ||
| Structure and function of blood | 611 | ||
| Blood volume | 612 | ||
| Hematocrit | 613 | ||
| Blood plasma | 613 | ||
| Red blood cells | 614 | ||
| Structure of red blood cells | 614 | ||
| Function of red blood cells | 614 | ||
| Hemoglobin | 615 | ||
| Formation of red blood cells | 615 | ||
| Life cycle of red blood cells | 617 | ||
| Blood types | 617 | ||
| The ABO system | 618 | ||
| The Rh system | 620 | ||
| White blood cells | 621 | ||
| Granulocytes | 622 | ||
| Neutrophils | 622 | ||
| Eosinophils | 622 | ||
| Basophils | 622 | ||
| Agranulocytes | 622 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 622 | ||
| Monocytes | 622 | ||
| White blood cell numbers | 622 | ||
| Formation of white blood cells | 623 | ||
| tPlatelets | 624 | ||
| Structure and function of platelets | 624 | ||
| Formation and life span of platelets | 624 | ||
| Hemostasis | 624 | ||
| Vasoconstriction | 624 | ||
| Platelet plug formation | 624 | ||
| Blood clotting (coagulation) | 625 | ||
| Activation pathways | 625 | ||
| Common pathway | 626 | ||
| Conditions that oppose clotting | 628 | ||
| Conditions that hasten clotting | 628 | ||
| Clot dissolution | 629 | ||
| Chapter summary | 633 | ||
| Composition of blood | 633 | ||
| Blood plasma | 633 | ||
| Red blood cells | 634 | ||
| White blood cells | 634 | ||
| Platelets (review ) | 635 | ||
| Hemostasis | 635 | ||
| The big picture: Blood and the whole body | 635 | ||
| 28 Heart | 637 | ||
| Heart structure | 638 | ||
| Location of the heart | 638 | ||
| Size and shape of the heart | 638 | ||
| Coverings of the heart | 642 | ||
| Structure of the heart coverings | 642 | ||
| Function of the heart coverings | 642 | ||
| Structure of the heart | 642 | ||
| Wall of the heart | 642 | ||
| Epicardium | 642 | ||
| Myocardium | 642 | ||
| Endocardium | 643 | ||
| Chambers of the heart | 643 | ||
| Atria | 643 | ||
| Ventricles | 643 | ||
| Valves of the heart | 643 | ||
| Atrioventricular valves | 644 | ||
| Semilunar valves | 644 | ||
| Skeleton of the heart | 646 | ||
| Surface projection | 646 | ||
| Flow of blood through the heart | 646 | ||
| Blood supply of heart tissue | 647 | ||
| Coronary arteries | 647 | ||
| Cardiac veins | 649 | ||
| Nerve supply of the heart | 649 | ||
| The heart as a pump | 649 | ||
| Conduction system of the heart | 649 | ||
| Electrocardiogram (ECG) | 651 | ||
| Electrocardiography | 651 | ||
| ECG waves | 653 | ||
| P wave | 653 | ||
| QRS complex | 653 | ||
| T wave | 653 | ||
| ECG intervals | 654 | ||
| Cardiac cycle | 654 | ||
| Atrial systole | 654 | ||
| Isovolumetric ventricular contraction | 655 | ||
| Ejection | 655 | ||
| Isovolumetric ventricular relaxation | 655 | ||
| Passive ventricular filling | 655 | ||
| Heart sounds | 656 | ||
| Chapter summary | 662 | ||
| Heart structure | 662 | ||
| The heart as a pump | 663 | ||
| Cycle of life: Heart | 664 | ||
| The big picture: Heart | 664 | ||
| 29 Blood vessels | 665 | ||
| Blood vessel types | 666 | ||
| Arteries | 666 | ||
| Capillaries | 666 | ||
| Veins | 667 | ||
| Structure of blood vessels | 669 | ||
| Components of the blood vessel wall | 669 | ||
| Endothelial tissue | 669 | ||
| Collagen fibers | 669 | ||
| Elastic fibers | 669 | ||
| Smooth muscle tissue | 669 | ||
| Layers of the blood vessel wall | 669 | ||
| Outer layer | 670 | ||
| Middle layer | 670 | ||
| Inner layer | 670 | ||
| Circulatory routes | 670 | ||
| Systemic circulation | 671 | ||
| Systemic arteries | 671 | ||
| General principles concerning arteries | 671 | ||
| Arteries of the head and neck | 675 | ||
| Arteries of the trunk | 675 | ||
| Arteries of the extremities | 678 | ||
| Systemic veins | 681 | ||
| General principles concerning veins | 681 | ||
| Veins of the head and neck | 683 | ||
| Veins of the upper extremity | 685 | ||
| Veins of the thorax | 685 | ||
| Veins of the abdomen | 685 | ||
| Hepatic portal circulation | 685 | ||
| Veins of the lower extremity | 686 | ||
| Fetal circulation | 688 | ||
| The basic plan of fetal circulation | 688 | ||
| Changes in circulation at birth | 691 | ||
| Chapter summary | 696 | ||
| Blood vessel types | 696 | ||
| Circulatory routes | 697 | ||
| Systemic circulation | 697 | ||
| Fetal circulation | 698 | ||
| Cycle of life: Blood vessels | 698 | ||
| The big picture: Blood vessels and the whole body | 698 | ||
| 30 Circulation of blood | 699 | ||
| Hemodynamics | 700 | ||
| Primary principle of circulation | 700 | ||
| Arterial blood pressure | 701 | ||
| Cardiac output | 701 | ||
| Factors that affect stroke volume | 703 | ||
| Factors that affect heart rate | 703 | ||
| Cardiac pressoreflexes | 704 | ||
| Carotid sinus reflex | 704 | ||
| Aortic reflex | 705 | ||
| Other reflexes that influence heart rate | 705 | ||
| Peripheral resistance | 706 | ||
| How resistance influences blood pressure | 706 | ||
| Vasomotor control mechanism | 706 | ||
| Vasomotor pressoreflexes | 708 | ||
| Vasomotor chemoreflexes | 708 | ||
| Medullary ischemic reflex | 708 | ||
| Vasomotor control by higher brain centers | 708 | ||
| Local control of arterioles | 711 | ||
| Venous return to the heart | 711 | ||
| Venous pumps | 711 | ||
| Total blood volume | 712 | ||
| Capillary exchange and total blood volume | 713 | ||
| Changes in total blood volume | 713 | ||
| ADH mechanism | 713 | ||
| Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system (RAAS) | 714 | ||
| ANH mechanism | 714 | ||
| Balance of regulation | 714 | ||
| Measuring blood pressure | 714 | ||
| Arterial blood pressure | 714 | ||
| Blood pressure and bleeding | 717 | ||
| Minute volume of blood | 699 | ||
| Velocity of blood flow | 718 | ||
| Pulse | 718 | ||
| Mechanism | 718 | ||
| Pulse wave | 719 | ||
| Where the pulse can be felt | 719 | ||
| Venous pulse | 720 | ||
| Chapter summary | 723 | ||
| Introduction | 723 | ||
| Hemodynamics | 723 | ||
| Primary principle of circulation | 724 | ||
| Arterial blood pressure | 724 | ||
| Venous return to the heart | 725 | ||
| Measuring blood pressure | 726 | ||
| Minute volume of blood | 726 | ||
| Velocity of blood flow | 726 | ||
| Pulse | 726 | ||
| Cycle of life: Cardiovascular physiology | 726 | ||
| The big picture: Blood flow and the whole body | 726 | ||
| 31 Lymphatic system | 728 | ||
| Overview of the lymphatic system | 729 | ||
| Lymph and interstitial fluid | 730 | ||
| Lymphatic vessels | 730 | ||
| Distribution of lymphatic vessels | 730 | ||
| Structure of lymphatic vessels | 731 | ||
| Functions of lymphatic vessels | 731 | ||
| Circulation of lymph | 732 | ||
| The lymphatic pump | 733 | ||
| Lymph nodes | 734 | ||
| Structure of lymph nodes | 734 | ||
| Locations of lymph nodes | 734 | ||
| Functions of lymph nodes | 735 | ||
| Defense functions: Filtration and phagocytosis | 735 | ||
| Hematopoiesis | 737 | ||
| tLymphatic drainage of the breast | 737 | ||
| Distribution of lymphatics in the breast | 738 | ||
| Lymph nodes associated with the breast | 739 | ||
| Tonsils | 739 | ||
| Thymus | 739 | ||
| Location and appearance of the thymus | 739 | ||
| Structure of the thymus | 740 | ||
| Function of the thymus | 740 | ||
| Spleen | 740 | ||
| Location of the spleen | 740 | ||
| Structure of the spleen | 740 | ||
| Functions of the spleen | 742 | ||
| Chapter summary | 746 | ||
| Overview of the lymphatic system | 746 | ||
| Lymph and interstitial fluid | 746 | ||
| Lymphatic vessels | 746 | ||
| Circulation of lymph | 746 | ||
| Lymph nodes | 747 | ||
| Lymphatic drainage of the breast | 747 | ||
| Tonsils | 747 | ||
| Thymus | 747 | ||
| Spleen | 747 | ||
| Cycle of life: Lymphatic system | 748 | ||
| The big picture: The lymphatic system and the whole body | 748 | ||
| 32 Innate immunity | 749 | ||
| Organization of the immune system | 750 | ||
| Defense of the body | 750 | ||
| Innate immunity | 751 | ||
| Species resistance | 752 | ||
| Mechanical and chemical barriers | 752 | ||
| Inflammation and fever | 753 | ||
| The inflammatory response | 753 | ||
| Fever | 753 | ||
| Phagocytosis | 754 | ||
| Natural killer cells | 757 | ||
| Interferon | 757 | ||
| Complement | 758 | ||
| Toll-like receptors | 759 | ||
| Chapter summary | 760 | ||
| Introduction | 760 | ||
| Organization of the immune system | 760 | ||
| Species resistance | 760 | ||
| Mechanical and chemical barriers | 760 | ||
| Inflammation and fever | 760 | ||
| Phagocytosis | 761 | ||
| Natural killer (NK) cells | 761 | ||
| Interferon (IFN) | 761 | ||
| Complement | 761 | ||
| Toll-like receptors (TLRs) | 761 | ||
| The big picture: Innate immunity and the whole body | 761 | ||
| 33 Adaptive immunity | 762 | ||
| Overview of adaptive immunity | 763 | ||
| B cells and antibody-mediated immunity | 765 | ||
| Development and activation of B cells | 765 | ||
| Antibodies (immunoglobulins) | 766 | ||
| Structure of antibody molecules | 766 | ||
| Diversity of antibodies | 767 | ||
| Classes of antibodies | 767 | ||
| Functions of antibodies | 767 | ||
| Antigen-antibody reactions | 767 | ||
| Complement | 768 | ||
| Primary and secondary responses | 769 | ||
| Clonal selection theory | 769 | ||
| T cells and cell-mediated immunity | 771 | ||
| Development of T cells | 771 | ||
| Activation and functions of T cells | 771 | ||
| Types of adaptive immunity | 775 | ||
| Summary of adaptive immunity | 776 | ||
| Chapter summary | 782 | ||
| Overview of adaptive immunity | 782 | ||
| B cells and antibody-mediated immunity | 783 | ||
| T cells and cell-mediated immunity | 783 | ||
| Types of adaptive immunity | 784 | ||
| Summary of adaptive immunity | 784 | ||
| The big picture: Immune system and the whole body | 784 | ||
| 34 Stress | 785 | ||
| Selye’s concept of stress | 786 | ||
| Development of the stress concept | 786 | ||
| Definitions | 786 | ||
| Stressors | 786 | ||
| General adaptation syndrome | 788 | ||
| Manifestations | 788 | ||
| Stages | 788 | ||
| Mechanism of stress | 790 | ||
| Some current concepts about stress | 790 | ||
| Definitions | 790 | ||
| Stress syndrome | 791 | ||
| Stress and disease | 792 | ||
| Indicators of stress | 792 | ||
| Corticoids and resistance to stress | 793 | ||
| Psychological stress | 793 | ||
| Effects of intrauterine stress | 795 | ||
| Chapter summary | 797 | ||
| Selye’s concept of stress | 797 | ||
| Some current concepts about stress | 797 | ||
| The big picture: Stress and the whole body | 798 | ||
| Unit 5 | 799 | ||
| Introduction | 799 | ||
| 35 Respiratory tract | 800 | ||
| Structural plan of the respiratory tract | 801 | ||
| Upper respiratory tract | 802 | ||
| Nose | 802 | ||
| Structure of the nose | 802 | ||
| Nasal mucosa | 803 | ||
| Paranasal sinuses | 804 | ||
| Functions of the nose | 804 | ||
| Pharynx | 805 | ||
| Structure of the pharynx | 805 | ||
| Functions of the pharynx | 805 | ||
| Larynx | 805 | ||
| Location of the larynx | 805 | ||
| Structure of the larynx | 805 | ||
| Cartilages of the larynx | 806 | ||
| Muscles of the larynx | 807 | ||
| Functions of the larynx | 807 | ||
| Lower respiratory tract | 807 | ||
| Trachea | 807 | ||
| Structure of the trachea | 807 | ||
| Function of the trachea | 807 | ||
| Bronchi and alveoli | 807 | ||
| Structure of the bronchi | 807 | ||
| Structure of the alveoli | 810 | ||
| Functions of the bronchi and alveoli | 811 | ||
| Lungs | 812 | ||
| Structure of the lungs | 812 | ||
| Functions of the lungs | 815 | ||
| Thorax | 816 | ||
| Structure of the thoracic cavity | 816 | ||
| Functions of the thoracic cavity | 816 | ||
| Chapter summary | 821 | ||
| Structural plan of the respiratory tract | 821 | ||
| Upper respiratory tract | 821 | ||
| Lower respiratory tract | 822 | ||
| Cycle of life: Respiratory tract | 823 | ||
| The big picture: Respiratory tract | 823 | ||
| 36 Ventilation | 824 | ||
| Respiratory physiology | 825 | ||
| Mechanism of ventilation | 825 | ||
| Primary principle of ventilation | 825 | ||
| Inspiration | 828 | ||
| Expiration | 829 | ||
| Pulmonary volumes and capacities | 831 | ||
| Pulmonary volumes | 831 | ||
| Pulmonary capacities | 834 | ||
| Pulmonary airflow | 835 | ||
| Ventilation and perfusion | 837 | ||
| Regulation of ventilation | 837 | ||
| Homeostasis of blood gases and pH | 837 | ||
| Respiratory control centers | 838 | ||
| Feedback and responses | 838 | ||
| Other influences on ventilation | 841 | ||
| Chapter summary | 845 | ||
| Respiratory physiology | 845 | ||
| Mechanism of ventilation | 845 | ||
| Pulmonary volumes and capacities | 846 | ||
| Pulmonary airflow | 846 | ||
| Ventilation and perfusion | 846 | ||
| Regulation of ventilation | 846 | ||
| The big picture: Ventilation and the whole body | 847 | ||
| 37 Gas exchange and transport | 848 | ||
| Pulmonary gas exchange | 849 | ||
| Partial pressure | 849 | ||
| Exchange of gases in the lungs | 850 | ||
| How blood transports gases | 852 | ||
| Hemoglobin | 852 | ||
| Transport of oxygen | 853 | ||
| Transport of carbon dioxide | 854 | ||
| Dissolved carbon dioxide | 854 | ||
| Carbamino compounds | 854 | ||
| Bicarbonate | 854 | ||
| Carbon dioxide and pH | 855 | ||
| Systemic gas exchange | 856 | ||
| Chapter summary | 858 | ||
| Pulmonary gas exchange | 858 | ||
| How blood transports gases | 859 | ||
| Systemic gas exchange | 859 | ||
| The big picture: Gas exchange and transport and the whole body | 859 | ||
| 38 Upper digestive tract | 860 | ||
| Organization of the digestive system | 861 | ||
| The digestive tract | 861 | ||
| Wall of the GI tract | 862 | ||
| Mucosa | 862 | ||
| Submucosa | 862 | ||
| Muscularis | 862 | ||
| Serosa | 862 | ||
| Modifications of layers | 863 | ||
| Mouth | 863 | ||
| Structure of the oral cavity | 863 | ||
| Lips | 864 | ||
| Cheeks | 864 | ||
| Hard palate and soft palate | 864 | ||
| Tongue | 864 | ||
| Salivary glands | 866 | ||
| Parotid glands | 867 | ||
| Submandibular glands | 867 | ||
| Sublingual glands | 867 | ||
| Teeth | 867 | ||
| Typical tooth | 867 | ||
| Types of teeth | 868 | ||
| Pharynx | 869 | ||
| Esophagus | 869 | ||
| Stomach | 871 | ||
| Size and position of the stomach | 871 | ||
| Divisions of the stomach | 872 | ||
| Curves of the stomach | 872 | ||
| Sphincter muscles | 872 | ||
| Stomach wall | 872 | ||
| Gastric mucosa | 872 | ||
| Gastric muscle | 873 | ||
| Functions of the stomach | 873 | ||
| Chapter summary | 879 | ||
| Organization of the digestive system | 879 | ||
| Mouth | 879 | ||
| Pharynx | 880 | ||
| Esophagus | 880 | ||
| Stomach | 880 | ||
| Cycle of life: Upper digestive tract | 880 | ||
| 39 Lower digestive tract | 882 | ||
| Small intestine | 883 | ||
| Size and position of the small intestine | 883 | ||
| Divisions of the small intestine | 883 | ||
| Wall of the small intestine | 883 | ||
| Large intestine | 885 | ||
| Size of the large intestine | 885 | ||
| Divisions of the large intestine | 885 | ||
| Cecum | 885 | ||
| Colon | 885 | ||
| Rectum | 887 | ||
| Wall of the large intestine | 887 | ||
| Vermiform appendix | 887 | ||
| Peritoneum | 888 | ||
| Liver | 888 | ||
| Location and size of the liver | 888 | ||
| Liver lobes and lobules | 888 | ||
| Bile ducts | 891 | ||
| Functions of the liver | 891 | ||
| Detoxification by liver cells | 891 | ||
| Bile secretion by the liver | 891 | ||
| Liver metabolism | 893 | ||
| Gallbladder | 893 | ||
| Size and location of the gallbladder | 893 | ||
| Structure of the gallbladder | 893 | ||
| Functions of the gallbladder | 893 | ||
| Pancreas | 893 | ||
| Size and location of the pancreas | 893 | ||
| Structure of the pancreas | 893 | ||
| Functions of the pancreas | 893 | ||
| Chapter summary | 898 | ||
| Introduction | 898 | ||
| Small intestine | 898 | ||
| Large intestine | 898 | ||
| Vermiform appendix | 899 | ||
| Peritoneum | 899 | ||
| Liver | 899 | ||
| Gallbladder | 899 | ||
| Pancreas | 899 | ||
| Cycle of life: Lower digestive tract | 900 | ||
| The big picture: Digestive tract | 900 | ||
| 40 Digestion and absorption | 901 | ||
| Overview of digestive function | 902 | ||
| Digestion | 902 | ||
| Mechanical digestion | 904 | ||
| Mastication | 904 | ||
| Deglutition | 904 | ||
| Peristalsis and segmentation | 904 | ||
| Regulation of motility | 906 | ||
| Gastric motility | 906 | ||
| Intestinal motility | 907 | ||
| Chemical digestion | 908 | ||
| Digestive enzymes | 908 | ||
| Overview of digestive enzymes | 908 | ||
| Properties of digestive enzymes | 908 | ||
| Carbohydrate digestion | 909 | ||
| Protein digestion | 910 | ||
| Fat digestion | 910 | ||
| Residues of digestion | 912 | ||
| Secretion | 913 | ||
| Saliva | 914 | ||
| Gastric juice | 914 | ||
| Pancreatic juice | 915 | ||
| Bile | 916 | ||
| Intestinal juice | 917 | ||
| Control of digestive gland secretion | 918 | ||
| Control of salivary secretion | 918 | ||
| Control of gastric secretion | 918 | ||
| Control of pancreatic secretion | 918 | ||
| Control of bile secretion | 920 | ||
| Control of intestinal secretion | 920 | ||
| Absorption | 920 | ||
| Process of absorption | 920 | ||
| Mechanisms of absorption | 920 | ||
| Elimination | 923 | ||
| Chapter summary | 926 | ||
| Overview of digestive function | 926 | ||
| Digestion | 926 | ||
| Secretion | 927 | ||
| Control of digestive gland secretion | 927 | ||
| Absorption | 928 | ||
| Elimination | 928 | ||
| The big picture: Digestion and the whole body | 928 | ||
| 41 Nutrition and metabolism | 930 | ||
| Overview of nutrition and metabolism | 931 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 933 | ||
| Dietary sources of carbohydrates | 933 | ||
| Carbohydrate metabolism | 933 | ||
| Glucose transport and phosphorylation | 933 | ||
| Glycolysis | 934 | ||
| Citric acid cycle | 934 | ||
| Electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation | 935 | ||
| Anaerobic pathway | 936 | ||
| Glycogenesis | 940 | ||
| Glycogenolysis | 940 | ||
| Gluconeogenesis | 941 | ||
| Control of glucose metabolism | 941 | ||
| Lipids | 944 | ||
| Dietary sources of lipids | 944 | ||
| Transport of lipids | 944 | ||
| Lipid metabolism | 945 | ||
| Lipid catabolism | 945 | ||
| Lipid anabolism | 945 | ||
| Control of lipid metabolism | 946 | ||
| Proteins | 946 | ||
| Sources of proteins | 946 | ||
| Protein metabolism | 947 | ||
| Protein anabolism | 947 | ||
| Protein catabolism | 947 | ||
| Protein balance and nitrogen balance | 947 | ||
| Control of protein metabolism | 948 | ||
| Vitamins and minerals | 948 | ||
| Vitamins | 948 | ||
| Minerals | 951 | ||
| Metabolic rates | 952 | ||
| Basal metabolic rate | 952 | ||
| Factors influencing basal metabolic rate | 952 | ||
| Size | 952 | ||
| Body composition | 954 | ||
| Gender | 954 | ||
| Age | 954 | ||
| Thyroid hormone | 954 | ||
| Body temperature | 954 | ||
| Drugs | 955 | ||
| Other factors | 955 | ||
| Total metabolic rate | 955 | ||
| Energy balance and body weight | 955 | ||
| Mechanisms for regulating food intake | 956 | ||
| Chapter summary | 962 | ||
| Overview of nutrition and metabolism | 962 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 962 | ||
| Lipids | 963 | ||
| Proteins | 963 | ||
| Vitamins and minerals | 963 | ||
| Metabolic rates | 964 | ||
| Mechanisms for regulating food intake | 964 | ||
| Cycle of life: Nutrition and metabolism | 964 | ||
| The big picture: Nutrition, metabolism, and the whole body | 964 | ||
| 42 Urinary system | 966 | ||
| Anatomy of the urinary system | 967 | ||
| Gross structure | 967 | ||
| Kidney | 967 | ||
| Blood vessels of the kidneys | 968 | ||
| Ureter | 969 | ||
| Urinary bladder | 970 | ||
| Urethra | 970 | ||
| Micturition | 971 | ||
| Microscopic structure | 971 | ||
| Nephron | 972 | ||
| Renal corpuscle | 972 | ||
| Bowman capsule. | 973 | ||
| Glomerulus. | 974 | ||
| Renal tubule | 975 | ||
| Proximal convoluted tubule. | 975 | ||
| Henle loop. | 975 | ||
| Distal convoluted tubule. | 976 | ||
| Collecting duct | 976 | ||
| Blood supply of the nephron | 976 | ||
| Types of nephrons | 976 | ||
| Physiology of the urinary system | 976 | ||
| Overview of kidney function | 976 | ||
| Filtration | 978 | ||
| Mechanism of filtration | 978 | ||
| Glomerular filtration rate | 979 | ||
| Reabsorption | 980 | ||
| Reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule | 980 | ||
| Reabsorption in the Henle loop | 981 | ||
| Reabsorption in the distal tubules and collecting ducts | 983 | ||
| Tubular secretion | 984 | ||
| Regulation of urine volume | 985 | ||
| Urine composition | 986 | ||
| Chapter summary | 995 | ||
| Overview of the urinary system | 995 | ||
| Anatomy of the urinary system | 995 | ||
| Physiology of the urinary system | 996 | ||
| Cycle of life: Urinary system | 997 | ||
| The big picture: Urinary system and the whole body | 997 | ||
| 43 Fluid and electrolyte balance | 999 | ||
| Interrelationship of fluid and electrolyte balance | 1000 | ||
| Total body water | 1000 | ||
| Body fluid compartments | 1001 | ||
| Chemical content, distribution, and measurement of electrolytes in body fluids | 1001 | ||
| Extracellular vs. intracellular fluids | 1001 | ||
| Measuring electrolyte reactivity | 1003 | ||
| Avenues by which water enters and leaves the body | 1003 | ||
| Some general principles about fluid balance | 1003 | ||
| Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis of total fluid volume | 1004 | ||
| Regulation of fluid intake | 1005 | ||
| Regulation of urine volume | 1005 | ||
| Factors that alter fluid loss under abnormal conditions | 1006 | ||
| Regulation of water and electrolyte levels in plasma and interstitial fluid | 1007 | ||
| Edema | 1009 | ||
| Regulation of water and electrolyte levels in ICF | 1010 | ||
| Regulation of sodium and potassium levels in body fluids | 1011 | ||
| Chapter summary | 1016 | ||
| Interrelationship of fluid and electrolyte balance | 1016 | ||
| Total body water | 1016 | ||
| Body fluid compartments | 1016 | ||
| Chemical content, distribution, and measurement of electrolytes in body fluids | 1016 | ||
| Avenues by which water enters and leaves the body | 1017 | ||
| Some general principles about fluid balance | 1017 | ||
| Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis of total fluid volume | 1017 | ||
| Regulation of water and electrolyte levels in plasma and interstitial fluid | 1017 | ||
| Regulation of water and electrolyte levels in ICF | 1017 | ||
| Regulation of sodium and potassium levels in body fluids | 1018 | ||
| Cycle of life: Fluid and electrolyte balance | 1018 | ||
| The big picture: Fluid and electrolyte balance | 1018 | ||
| 44 Acid-base balance | 1019 | ||
| Mechanisms that control pH of body fluids | 1020 | ||
| Review of the pH concept | 1020 | ||
| Sources of pH-influencing chemicals | 1021 | ||
| Types of pH control mechanisms | 1021 | ||
| Effectiveness of pH control mechanisms—range of pH | 1022 | ||
| Buffer mechanisms for controlling pH of body fluids | 1022 | ||
| Buffers defined | 1022 | ||
| Buffer pairs present in body fluids | 1022 | ||
| Buffer actions that prevent marked changes in pH of body fluids | 1022 | ||
| Evaluation of the role of buffers in pH control | 1025 | ||
| Respiratory mechanisms of pH control | 1025 | ||
| Explanation of respiratory mechanisms | 1025 | ||
| Respiratory adjustment to counter pH imbalance of arterial blood | 1026 | ||
| Principles that relate respirations to pH value | 1026 | ||
| Arterial blood gas analysis | 1027 | ||
| Urinary mechanisms that control pH | 1027 | ||
| General principles concerning urinary mechanisms | 1027 | ||
| Mechanisms that control urine pH | 1027 | ||
| Chapter summary | 1034 | ||
| Introduction | 1034 | ||
| Mechanisms that control pH of body fluids | 1034 | ||
| Buffer mechanisms for controlling pH of body fluids | 1034 | ||
| Respiratory mechanisms of pH control | 1035 | ||
| Urinary mechanisms that control pH | 1035 | ||
| The big picture: Acid-base balance | 1035 | ||
| Unit 6 | 1037 | ||
| Introduction | 1037 | ||
| 45 Male reproductive system | 1038 | ||
| Sexual reproduction | 1039 | ||
| Male reproductive organs | 1039 | ||
| Perineum | 1039 | ||
| Testes | 1039 | ||
| Structure and location | 1039 | ||
| Microscopic anatomy of the testis | 1040 | ||
| Testes functions | 1043 | ||
| Spermatozoa | 1044 | ||
| Reproductive ducts | 1045 | ||
| Epididymis | 1045 | ||
| Glossary of anatomy & physiology | 1151 | ||
| A | 1151 | ||
| B | 1155 | ||
| C | 1156 | ||
| D | 1161 | ||
| E | 1163 | ||
| F | 1165 | ||
| G | 1167 | ||
| H | 1168 | ||
| I | 1170 | ||
| J | 1173 | ||
| K | 1173 | ||
| L | 1173 | ||
| M | 1174 | ||
| N | 1177 | ||
| O | 1179 | ||
| P | 1180 | ||
| Q | 1185 | ||
| R | 1185 | ||
| S | 1187 | ||
| T | 1191 | ||
| U | 1194 | ||
| V | 1194 | ||
| W | 1195 | ||
| X | 1196 | ||
| Y | 1196 | ||
| Z | 1196 | ||
| Index | 1197 | ||
| A | 1197 | ||
| B | 1199 | ||
| C | 1201 | ||
| D | 1204 | ||
| E | 1205 | ||
| F | 1206 | ||
| G | 1208 | ||
| H | 1209 | ||
| I | 1210 | ||
| J | 1211 | ||
| K | 1211 | ||
| L | 1211 | ||
| M | 1212 | ||
| N | 1214 | ||
| O | 1215 | ||
| P | 1216 | ||
| Q | 1218 | ||
| R | 1218 | ||
| S | 1219 | ||
| T | 1222 | ||
| U | 1223 | ||
| V | 1224 | ||
| W | 1225 | ||
| X | 1225 | ||
| Y | 1225 | ||
| Z | 1225 | ||
| A&P connect | 1226 | ||
| Anatomical directions | ES |